US WOMAN GANG-RAPED BY NINE ARMED MEN, HUSBAND TIED NAKED TO A TREE

A US academic has been gang raped in Papua New Guinea by nine armed men who hacked off her blond hair and left her husband tied naked to a tree.

The 32-year-old woman, who was conducting research into exotic birds in a remote forest on Karkar Island, was walking along a bush track with her husband and a guide on Friday when they were set upon by the gang armed with knives and rifles.

Her husband and the guide were stripped and bound by the men, who then used a bush knife to hack off the woman’s hair before raping her in a terrifying ordeal lasting 20 minutes.

The woman chose to speak out about the horrific attack – condemned by the country’s prime minister Peter O’Neil as ‘the cowardly act of animals’ – to highlight the violence that women in Papua New Guinea experience.

The brutal gang rape came less than a week after an Australian man living in the central highlands of Papua New Guinea was shot dead and his Filipina girlfriend gang raped when a group of men broke into their house.

The U.S. woman, who posed for a photograph but did not want to reveal her identity, spoke to media in Port Moresby as she and her husband waited for a flight to leave the country.

‘I was walking along a bush track with my husband and our guide when we were ambushed by nine men armed with rifles and knifes,’ she said.

Relaying an ordeal that has sent shock waves throughout the country, the woman said the men first ordered her husband and the guide to strip naked before they were tried to trees.

Then they turned to the woman.

Her clothes were torn off, her hands were bound and her blonde hair was chopped off with bush knives. She was then raped one by one by the gang for a terrifying 20 minutes.

Her ordeal ended only when something in the forest startled the gang and they ran away.

The U.S. couple’s guide managed to break free and released them, before they all ran naked along jungle tracks for several hours, determined to put as much distance as possible between themselves and the scene of the attack in case the gang came back.

Eventually they reached a remote village where they were given some clothing and from where they were able to raise the alarm.

They later made their way back to Madang, on the northern coast of the mainland, before flying to the capital Port Moreseby.

A local photographer working for AFP helped the couple file police reports and organize a flight out of the country.

‘This story should not come out just because I am white,’ said the woman, who was on her fifth visit to the country since her first trip in 2010. She would stay for up to four months conducting her research into exotic birds and the impact of climate change on the forest.

‘My story should come out in the hopes that it empowers Papua New Guinean women to stand up and say no more violence against women in this country,’ said the woman, who did not want to reveal her identity.

‘I hope my story can make a change.’

But senior police admit they have heard such calls before from tribal women all around Papua New Guinea.

Wives suffer extreme violence in some cases from their husbands over domestic issues, and brutal punishments are handed out to women accused of witchcraft, which is practiced in remote parts of the country.

In February a 20-year-old mother accused of witchcraft was dragged from her village, taken to a rubbish dump, stripped and burned alive near Mount Hagen, in the centre of the country.

And earlier this month an elderly woman was beheaded with a bush knife after being accused of sorcery.

The U.S. woman’s terrifying story has been reported to the US Embassy in Port Moresby, but a duty officer today gave no comment.

A spokesman for the police in Port Moresby said a statement had been taken but no arrests had been made. -MD

CONSERVATION BIOLOGY PROBOSCIS (NASALIS LARVATUS)

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
Forest management implemented so far has led to the degradation impact on the need for the preservation of wildlife habitat and ecosystem of tropical rain. Concerns about the decline in wildlife populations and their habitats due to forest use has been recognized by many parties. From 1981 to 1985, every year 4.4 million hectares of forests worldwide cut of which 3.8 million ha converted to non-forest land for the purpose, so that the rate of reduction of forest in the world about one percent per year of the remaining forest area (WWF, 1990).
In Indonesia, in the period between 1998-2004 there has been a vast change in tropical forests from primary to secondary forest conditions an average of 1.15 million ha per year, and changes of secondary forest to degraded forest 2.15 million ha per year (Ministry of Forestry , 2005). The rate of increase in the critical field of the year 2000-2006 average of 3.62% per year even for Kalimantan critical land rate of increase of 4.4% a year (Ministry of Forestry, 2007). According to the theory of biogeography, widespread habitat islands or ten times greater then the number of species that inhabit the opportunities will increase two-fold (Diamond, 1975). With such diversity, wildlife populations and habitat will follow the rules above, as the basis for establishing the conservation area.
Protection of wildlife in Indonesia, especially endangered species, has been started since 1931 with the Wild Animals Protection Ordinance 1931 (Statute No. 1931. No. 226 jis 1932. No. 28 and 1935. 513). Protected primates include proboscis (Nasalis larvatus Wurmb.), All kinds of gibbons (Hylobates spp.), And orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Efforts to improve wildlife conservation also being conducted melaIui establishment and structuring of various conservation area, which is now a conservation area land accounted for 17% (22,702,527.17 ha) of forests of Indonesia (Ministry of Forestry, 2007). Conservation area is not only to maintain the continuity of ecological and evolutionary processes that determine species diversity, but also for the preservation of natural germplasm of high economic and ecological value.
Development of a conservation area is a realization of Law. 5 of 1990 on Conservation of Biological Resources and Ekosistemnya.Dengan the various interests of forest land allocation and not all populations of rare and endangered primates included in the conservation area. To protect the existing wildlife outside protected areas such as in the area of ​​forest concessions (HPH) or Licensed Timber Utilisation (IUPHHK), of course, need to consider the use of forests and wildlife habitat tolerance to damage, in addition to developing a conservation area within the concession (starting with the Forestry Minister. 252/Kpts-II/1993) and developed to the Forestry Minister. 4795/Kpts-II/2002 about Keriteria and Natural Forest Management Indicators for Sustainable Production).
Preservation of forests outside of protected areas important to the preservation of wildlife and the environment. In the forest conservation is necessary to find an ecological indicator of environmental quality as a determinant of the forest, such as wildlife that depend on the forest stand. In the forest areas in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi are inhabited by endangered species protected, primates can be used as an indicator in forest management and conservation strategies to determine. This species in his life depend on tree stands in performing daily activities, especially the trees as the main source of feed. In this case, knowledge about the ecological factors that affect patterns of eating behavior (feeding behavior) or feeding ecology (feeding ecology) management system to support habitat and wildlife populations in the conservation area as well as in production forests (Bismark, 1993; Meiyaardet al. , 2006).

1.1. Animals Endemic Proboscis Monkey
Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus Wurmb.) Is a type of animal that is included in the Order (the nation) Primates, Family (tribe) Cercophitecidae, and subfamily (child rate) Colobinae (Jolly, 1972) with the conservation status of endangered (IUCN, 2008), including the Appendix I of CITES and very high attention in conservation efforts. This species is classified as very rare and endemic species, with limited habitat mangrove forests around the river, and peat swamp habitat in which some have been threatened by various human activities.
According to McNeely et al. (1990), of 29,500 square km proboscis monkey habitat, this time has been reduced of 40%, while the status of protected areas is only 4.1%. In 2000, the rate of deforestation, habitat proboscis 3.49% per year (Supriatna, 2004). Of the six ecosystem types proboscis monkey habitat, in 1995 there has been a broad decline in habitat between 20-88% (Meijaard, 2000) and the rate of decline is habitat within and outside conservation areas two percent per year (PHVA Proboscis monkeys, 2004). As a result of these habitat penurunanluas the proboscis monkey populations tend to decline as these primates are less tolerant of habitat destruction (Wilson and Wilson, 1975; Yeager, 1992). Morphologically, proboscis monkey hair color varies. In the shoulder and upper back reddish brown. The ends of her hair brownish red, while two-thirds of its gray. Yellow-gray backs, colored belly powerful the ningan or gray, sometimes brownish yellow section. Hands and feet yellowish white, reddish-brown head and neck grayish white areas. Characteristic proboscis that is easily recognizable is the size of a large nose and long padajantan (Figure 1) and tapered at betina.Adanya coat color variation in body parts as a basis for distinguishing sub-species that exist proboscis, which Nasalis larvatus larvatus and Nasalis lavartus orientalis (Kern, 1964).

1.2. Support Research in Conservation Program proboscis monkey
Some aspects of the research has been done such as proboscis monkey populations in Tanjung Puting concerns and feeding ecology in mangroves (Bismark, 1980, 1989), ecology and social behavior of peat swamp forest habitat in Central Kalimantan (TN Tanjung Puting) (Yeager, 1989, 1990 ), social organizations in mangroves Sarawak (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988), distribution, habitat and population in Sarawak (Salter et al., 1985), and their distribution in different habitat types (Meijaard and Nijman, 2000).
In this case, in-depth study of the ecology of proboscis monkeys living in mangrove habitat has not been much done. However, Sunjoto (2004) has reviewed aspects of the ecology and habitat of proboscis monkeys living in the forests of Borneo rubber Selatan.Laporan previous research has many functions and propose and discuss the benefits and potential of mangroves. Mangrove forests are one part of the estuarine ecosystem with high productivity ter main mangrove ecosystem type "riverine" (Lear and Turner, 1977; Mitsch and Gosselink, 1984) and has the function of tissue preservation ekologisdalam eat (Dingwall, 1983). As in New Guinea there are 204 species of fish depend on mangroves, while the northern part of Borneo is known to have 40 species of 33 genera of fish (Collette, 1983).
In addition to the ecological value of mangroves also have value in coastal protection, wildlife habitat, aesthetic, and economic value (Dingwall, 1983). Limited distribution and extensive mangrove forests and the high value of importance of these ecosystems boost conservation efforts, especially mangrove forests as wildlife habitat. Therefore, the results of the study are now more digging and socio-economic aspects of biodiversity in the rehabilitation of mangrove areas for the purpose of preservation of function as a buffer zone waters of life. Distribution and extensive mangrove forests in Kalimantan (Figure 2) is very limited ie 383 450 ha (Darsidi, 1984) and the habitat only proboscis of 15,600 ha. In 1995 the only remaining habitat is 9200 ha. A decrease of 41% has an impact on habitat and population distribution uneven proboscis (Salter et al., 1985; Yasuma, 1989; Bismark, 2004) and the changing nature of the proboscis are less tolerant of habitat destruction (Wilson and Wilson, 1975) and increased land requirements for agriculture, settlements and utilize mangrove forests along the river. This is a major concern to the population keterancaman proboscis.
Food resources in primate habitat is an ecological factors that determine the sustainability of primate populations (Bismark, 1994, 2004; Meijaard et al., 2006). The quality and quantity of food can affect behavior and social organization of primates (Raemaker and Chivers, 1980), wide area roaming and affect the movement behavior of primates (Whitten, 1982), and also affects the feed as a source of energy, growth and proliferation. Potential feed also affects the size and population of the proboscis monkey (Iskandar, 2006). Given the magnitude of the role of food resources on the behavior and survival of primates, the proboscis monkey population management and habitat can be determined based on the parameters feeding ecology of the relation of environmental factors on the pattern perilakumakan habitat and daily activities in the habitat (Bismark, 2004; Sunjoto, 2005). Given that many proboscis feed stored in mangroves, the mangroves will rescue rescuing proboscis monkey populations. In the proboscis monkey conservation program required information about behavioral and environmental factors that support habitat to feed the needs and safety of the hunt.

1.3. Biophysical Environment Habitat proboscis monkey
Mangrove forest ecosystem as proboscis monkey habitat (Nasalis larvatus) differs from the peat swamp forests and other riverside forest, where mangroves are influenced by tides with salt levels (salinity) high. This situation affects the soil drainage and soil salinity conditions (Lear and Turner, 1977).
Tides also act as carriers of nutrients and stabilize the salinity of the soil, so there is no kompetisitumbuhan mangroves with plants that are not tolerant to high soil salinity. Besides the river also plays a role in regulating the physical and chemical properties of mangrove forests that occur vegetasiyang differences exist on the edge of the river with forest on the inside (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1984). In addition to its effect on physical properties, soil chemistry, and vegetation, the river which is the habitat of predators and parasites potentially carry pollutants that will affect the lives of proboscis. The physical environment of mangrove forests, as mentioned above akanberpengaruh on productivity, distribution, density, and diversity of plant. This condition will determine the quantity and nutritional quality of food sources proboscis, ie protein, fat, crude fiber, carbohydrates, and minerals from the leaves, flowers, and fruit. Furthermore, the quantity and quality of food resources will form a pattern of behavior proboscis. Primates are very selective in choosing a suitable habitat with potential food source that can meet their needs, so that the feed source tree has a positive correlation estimators dandapat a population of Hylobates (Iskandar, 2006).
In theory, the source of food is the most important factor in the selection of the habitat. Animals in the selection of the preferred habitat can be viewed from two aspects. First, genetically, each individual is able to react to environmental conditions so as to make the selection of suitable habitat. Second, the relationship between types or groups as well as the process of learning right from a young age or learning from the experience gained from older individuals. Both of these factors can be seen in the pattern of cruising and space odyssey (home range) corresponding to primate social behavior and the behavior of the environment makandalam habitat (Whitten, 1982; Bismark, 1994).
The diversity of species and the physical structure of the forest as a habitat, separately or bersamasama will provide a variety of niches (niche) potential ecological distribution of wildlife, especially the volume of the canopy as a producer of primary products relativity that will determine the secondary productivity (the animal). Lowland tropical forests in Asia, Africa, and America, produce dry litter as / of 6-7 tonnes / ha / year, in Malaysia around 7.5 tonnes / ha / year (Raemakers et al., 1980), and mangroves Young leaves can produce 5 tons / ha / year (Clough et al., 1983). The physical structure of the forest is formed due to the difference in height of trees by type, age and nature of the growth. This forms the stratification that creates ecological niches, such as the difference in height and the position of the primates eat simpatrik the tree. A variety of ecological niches will give the other herbivorous mammals bagisatwa danburung to find food. These animals can help accelerate forest regeneration through seed dispersal of plants as food scraps, either by primates and birds as well as speed up the process of recycling the essential elements into the environment. Proboscis monkeys can increase biodiversity of plants in their habitat in a way that reduces the number of seeds eaten dominant vegetation, thus providing an opportunity for yangtidak dominant plant seeds to grow and develop (Yeager and Blondal, 1992).
Indonesia tropical forest has a high diversity of primates, both primate leaf eating (folivorous) and fruit-eating (frugivorous). This is supported by the ecology of each species of primate in the use of different food sources according to the type of food you like, use forest canopy stratification, and movement patterns (Curtin and Chivers, 1979; Meijaard et al., 2006). A high diversity of plant species in their habitat, especially primates simpatrik will allow the high diversity of food in space and time. Although the primary forest there are many big and tall trees, the animal life more generally ranging in height between 25-35 m and 15-30 m, except in certain habitats such as river (Curtin and Chivers, 1979).
Mangrove ecosystem with all the interactions and inter-relationships of components in it related to population growth is the availability or potential animal feed available in the habitat. Arboreal primate populations is highly dependent on the density of trees (Bismark, 2006; Iskandar, 2006). Therefore, conservation of habitat and populations of rare endemic species including primates proboscis begins with knowledge of the status and potential of tree stands that serve as feeding and sleeping tree that determines the carrying capacity of the habitat.
Primates in natural food sources can be grouped into three categories: vegetative parts of plants, the reproductive parts of plants and animals. In this case can be a leaf, a flower, fruit, bird eggs and insects, and plant parts such as bulbs with the same nutritional value of fruits that contain protein, free amino acids, vitamin C, and sugar is beneficial. In general, the vegetative parts of plants and trees to climb right dima primates, including young leaves or old leaves (Chivers and Raemakers, 1980). Orangutans can eat bark (Rijksen, 1978) as well as the types of squirrels (Whitten and Whitten, 1987).
Problems in feeding primates in tropical forests are phytochemical compounds that are toxic, cellulose, and lignin (Oates, 1977, Hoshino, 1985). Leaf-eating primate species, especially of children Colobinae tribe, the microbes digest cellulose bersimbiose with gastric (Bauchop, 1978), but this process will be less effective when there is a high lignin content (Oates, 1977). Phytochemical compounds found in the leaves (classified as secondary compounds) affect the level of preference mammalian herbivores to eat. Plants contained in nutrient-poor tropical forests contain many phytochemical compounds as compounds for defense, such as against insects (Curtin and Chivers, 1979). Secondary compounds may be either non-protein amino acids, alkaloids, and phenols which all affect the feeding behavior of animals (Hladik, 1978). Tannins, as found in mangrove leaf contains compounds that can mengkoagulasikan component proteins and digestive enzymes, but in some primate species seen no significant correlation between the intensity of eating with the secondary compound (Whitten and Whitten, 1987).
The difference in feed composition can occur in different habitats, especially the differences in soil fertility will affect the diversity of plant species. The difference in feeding behavior is also seen in the proboscis of different habitats such as mangroves National Park (TN) Bako and Wildlife (SM) Samunsam, Sarawak, where in TN Bako feeding activity proboscis some 63.2%, while in the mangroves SM Samunsan 13.1% (Salter et al., 1985). Proboscis as leaf-eating primates that are like ruminants (Hladik, 1978) takes the feed ratio of protein with low roughness fibers (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988). In the dipterocarp forest, with nutrient poor soil produce leaves with a ratio of protein and fiber are low anyway, but other elements such as mineral deficiency, causing proboscis monkey can not occupy such habitats (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988).
The mangrove forests that receive nutrient inputs from rivers and tidal water from the sea, through the deposition and decomposition by microorganisms (Lear and Turner, 1977) led to soil nutrient rich mangrove forests, such as the elements of N which plays a role in increasing the productivity of mangrove leaves (Clough et al., 1983). In addition, mangrove leaves contain more minerals that are needed by ruminant animals. In forest habitats, primates feed spread vertically and horizontally, thereby primates will move vertically or horizontally to find food in accordance with the level of preference to the type of feed, especially associated with higher levels of nutrition and safety, and to avoid competition (Bismark, 1994).
In this book the authors presented a summary of the research results to the population and behavior of proboscis monkeys in the mangroves and the results of relevant research experts including the results of research in the doctoral program in which the author participated as Team Promoter. As a preliminary description above, ecology and conservation studies will be directed at potential proboscis monkey habitat, distribution proboscis monkey populations, and especially behaviors related to feed, carrying capacity, and conservation aspects proboscis outside the conservation area.

CHAPTER 2

HABITAT

2.1. Types and Distribution of Habitat

In general Borneo endemic proboscis monkey forest habitat like wetlands, both inside and outside protected areas. In South Kalimantan, proboscis monkey can be found in the rubber forests outside protected areas adjacent to a water source such as a river or small lake (Soendjoto et al., 2005). Meijaard et al. (2000) have identified an area of ​​ecosystem habitats in Borneo proboscis.

If you see a proboscis monkey habitat in 1995 (Meijaardet al., 2000) is the smallest area of ​​mangrove forest remaining 59%. These conditions will change in the next year due to changes in the function of mangrove forests and vegetation, while the proboscis is very dependent on the mangrove forest (Kern, 1962). Bismark (1980) reported the presence of these primates are scattered in different habitat types including rivers impassable peat swamp forest. Proboscis monkeys are also known to use the existing trees on the edge of his bed-tepisungai for distribution and habitatprimata so identification is easier to do, including the use of population census methods proboscis through the river.

Proboscis type are also found in the river upstream far from the sea, such as Moody River North Barito (Chivers reports and personal observation, 1994) as well as in the upper reaches of the dipterocarp forests dominated Sangatta (Bismark, 1997). Proboscis monkeys are found in small islands, such as Island Shocked covering 247 hectares in South Kalimantan and mangrove habitats are affected by salinity.

Concerns about the rapid reduction of the negative impact on the habitat of the proboscis monkey population decline are habitat degradation of lowland forest, as is the case in the National Park Mountain Trench. From 1998-2002, widespread decline in TN Mountain Trench cover greatly increased from about 500 to 8,000 haper years and in the buffer zone of about 600 ha per year (Curran et al., 2004). Mangrove forest destruction is caused more by the conversion of land into farms. Ponds in the mangrove forest in production forests Karyasa PT Kencana Tarakan in the past 10 years since 1982 increased drastically. Extensive pond awalnya125 ha increased to 50-fold (Sardjono, 1995) as a form of shrinking mangrove areas. In general, improvement efforts through the rehabilitation of mangrove ecosystems in Borneo in the period 1999-2006 has been realized some 4173 ha.

In South Kalimantan, proboscis monkey habitat includes mangrove forest, mixed forest on the coast, peat and swamp forest dominated by Galam (Melaleuca cajuputi). Additionally proboscis monkey populations are also found in the limestone hill forest and rubber forest (Sunjoto et al., 2005). Distribution of proboscis monkeys in some areas outside conservation areas in South Kalimantan have been identified by Sunjoto et al. (2003).

2.1.1. Peat Swamp Forests

Conditions proboscis monkey habitat vegetation in peat swamp forest Tanjung Puting National Park has been reported by Yeager on tahun1989. Analysis of the vegetation is more focused on potential feed proboscis. With these data it is possible to develop silvicultural research the types of critical habitat necessary to rehabilitate or enhance the feed source tree in habitat, conservation and restoration of degraded forest areas which potentially has a population of proboscis monkeys.

High trees in habitats ranging proboscis 6-27 m (average 11.4 m), tree diameter from 9.6 to 45.2 cm (mean 18.11 cm), and basal area from 71.6 to 1604.6 cm ² (average 350.3 cm2) and the broad canopy of 9.1 to 54 m² (average of 22.9 m²). Some 71% of the tree is a tree identification results feed covering 80.4% of total basal area and 71.6% of the canopy (Yeager, 1980). Tree species favored by the proboscis monkey as a source of food is Ganua motleyana (Yeager, 1989; Bismark, 1980).

Proboscis monkeys in Kuala Samboja, East Kalimantan habitat location adjacent to village showing the proboscis adapted to the residential areas. Or conversely, there has been an invasion of land use by the local community proboscis monkey habitat. In this habitat is the dominant tree Sonneratia casiolaris (Important Value Index (IVI) of 38.37%), Vitex pubescens (IVI 30.38%), Sandoricum koetjapi (IVI 24.15%), and Syzygium sp. (IVI 18.9%). There are also rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 28.95 trees / ha (Alikodra et al., 1995).

Proboscis monkey habitat around the population with dominant plant Sonneratia caseolaris black riverside forest Samboja, East Kalimantan highly degraded condition was also reported by Ma'ruf (2004). Analysis of the detailed mangrove forest habitat in the forest complex Sangkimah, Kutai National Park has been carried out in 1994. The analysis was conducted in the area of ​​1 square km starting from the riverbank to 500 m into the forest (Bismark, 1994).

2.1.2. Mangrove Forests

Mangrove forest habitat example proboscis is populated by mangrove type "riverine" on the banks Sangkimah National Park (TN) Kutai (Bismark, 1994). Mangrove forest stretching from the coast up to 2 km upstream. The river banks are dominated by palm (Nypa fruticans), apiapi tree (Avicennia officinalis), Bruguiera parviflora and Rhizophora apiculata. Some research sites on the coast there are coastal forest vegetation dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia. Plant species were found at the sites listed in Table 5. Examples of this habitat can be a model of proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat.

In general, there is a mangrove forest zoning or group of dominant species. Establishment of zoning is influenced by tides, vegetation away from the beach as well as the factors geomor fologi, ekofisiologi plant succession and population dynamics types (Watson, 1928; Anwar et al., 1984). Zonation of vegetation in the study area is also used to view knowl lompokan types can also describe the distribution of mangrove tree species as a potential feed proboscis. Examples of plants that are mapped zoning include Aglaia cucullata, Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora apiculata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Ceri ops tagal, and Bruguiera parviflora.

Of zoning is evident that R. apiculata dominated vegetation even grow along with other types. This situation can occur because the ground state is relatively dense forest and peat with the forest floor is dominated by Acrostichum aureum. Zoning is determined by the type of soil conditions, where the soil is soft or muddy in the overgrown by Avicennia and Sonneratia, while relatively hard ground covered with Rhizophora (Sugiarto, 1984). R. apiculata grown inland but Rhizophora mucronata grows on the muddy ground (Anwar et al., 1984).

Diameter, height, broad canopy and tree density plays a role in forming the structure of vegetation. From the observation and measurement of the diameter and height of trees in the path of vegetation known observation that mangroves can reach a diameter of 140 cm.

Trees with diameters> 50 cm with a height of over 30 m, mempunyaifungsi protection and movement of the proboscis, especially the micro-climate that provides comfort as a resting place proboscis. Trees with a height between 10-30 m 20-40 cm diameter reaches 52%. This supports the potential feeding activity and food resources proboscis.

Extensive relationships with the diameter of the tree canopy is calculated from the number of trees in the plot size of 10 mx 100 m, which is designed to describe the plot diagram mangrove vegetation profile of the river bank up to 100 m into the forest. From the analysis found a linear relationship between the size of the canopy (Y, in m²) and basal area (X, in cm ²) with the equation Y = 11.0559 + 0.01343 x (r = 0.69, n = 78, p <0.005)

Mangrove forest soils different from other forest land, where there is no drainage, high salt levels, anaerobic conditions, and has a high organic content. Mangroveini forest soil formation is influenced by physical factors, through nutrient transport by tides, waves, and rivers, through the sediment chemical and biotic factors, namely the process of decomposition by microorganisms (Lear and Turner, 1977).

Salinity and nitrogen are the ecological factors affecting mangrove forests harbor Growth (Peng and Xin-Men, 1983) and the parameters of Na / K is the chemical factors that can affect seedling growth in addition to salinity (Bhosale and Shinde, 1983). Sukardjo (1987) analysis of soil C and N content of mangrove vegetation relation to the number of trees in the plot observations.

In the mangrove forest TN Kutai, look no apparent difference between the levels of N and C in each zone, as well as the Na / K and salinity. From this analysis it can be said that the organic content, Na, and K and soil salinity concentrations were evenly distributed in riverine mangrove forests (Table 7). This condition can be caused by zoning R. apiculata were very dominant. Besides the dominance of A. aureum as the physical plant can be influential in pengendapanunsur nutrients into the soil. The concentration of C in the soil between 4.996 to 5.995% showed a relatively stable concentration where the concentration below 2.86% are included in the category of unstable (Soegiarto, 1984). High levels of forest soil organic matter was made possible due largely dominated peat soil structure and higher production of litter and nutrients from the river.

Soil N levels in the river mangrove habitat proboscis monkey habitat ranges from 0.904 to 1.325%. Sukardjo report (1987) indicates that the mangroves have Indramayu soil N levels from 0.08 to 0.203% while Soegiarto (1984) put the figure ranges from 0.28 to 1.26% on the island of hair. The high element of C and N in the soil allows the mangrove vegetation grows so well that the density of trees in the mangrove forest that has not been disturbed reaches 755 trees per ha with high forest productivity. The results Peng and Xin-Men (1983) showed a correlation between the height (Y) of mangrove forest with a concentration N (X) is contained in the 20-40cm soil layer. This can be shown by the equation log Y = 0.9373 + 3.124 X. Judging from the organic content (C), zoning C. tagal have the highest soil C levels of 5.995%. The condition was also reported by Johnstone (1983), while the value of Na / K higher in zoning Rhizophora (Spenceley, 1983).

Proboscis monkey habitat dominated by R. apiculata (number and spreading) can achieve important value index (IVI) of more than 200% to the level of the trees and small trees. This condition is also seen in the mangrove forest dominated by R. apiculata in Sulawesi, which demonstrated high IVI, as in the River Ranu (Morowali, Central Sulawesi) with an IVI tree R. apiculata by 203.58% and 249.60% IVI pole with a density of 300 trees / ha (tree diameter> 10 cm) (Darnaedi and Budiman, 1982).

Salinity is not too important to the survival of mangrove tree species, but it is necessary to avoid kompetisidengan types that are not tolerant to high salinity (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1984). At low salinity soil (0.876%) will be formed zoning R. pure apiculata (Sukardjo, 1987). Conditions of soil salinity is relatively high (6.44 to 7.475%), supporting the establishment of another zonasijenis although still dominated by R. apiculata. In conditions of high soil salinity, plants store the salt in old leaves before autumn and the Avicennia, salt gland can be removed through the leaves (Lear and Turner, 1977; Mitsch and Gosselink, 1984; Field et aI., 1984) .2.2. Habitat degradation Degradation of habitat proboscis happen relatively quickly due to the high economic value. Riverside habitat is the area traversed by the first people to invade land behind, which was opened for settlement and agricultural land. Similarly, the formation of the township that all these are forms of habitat degradation are common in the mouth of the river upstream to the riparian forest habitat potential proboscis.

The development of residential and agricultural areas along the edge of the forest and the river causes a decrease berpencarnya proboscis monkey population between 15-40 km (Bismark, 2002; Ma'ruf, 2004). In the end, proboscis monkeys are left, which should be the original inhabitants, dianggapsebagai agricultural pests by most people (Sunjoto et al., 2005). In 1990 the proboscis monkey habitat was reported missing seluas49% and in 1995 39% reported living and only 15% of the original habitat in protected areas (Meijaard et al., 2000). Habitat is estimated to have decreased about 2% a year.

Habitat destruction is not just happening outside the conservation area, has even entered the conservation area. In 2001 the lowland forests of Borneo conservation area has been degraded by over 56% (Curran et al., 2004). Habitat degradation seen in the island Startled, where only 10% and 90% forested areas into agricultural areas (Meijaard, 2000). Habitat is the only plant trees 20-50 m from the edge of the river with a tree density of 150 trees per hectare (Bismark, 1997). Large forest fires occurred in Tanjung Puting National Park in 1997 led to habitat lost about 75% and in 1998 wildfires Kutai National Park menyisakanhabitat wooded 5%.

Proboscis monkey habitat specific, limited feed resources, and competition with other primates, causing proboscis lebihsensitif against habitat destruction. Based on the impact of increased traffic flow streams, forest utilization in the form of timber management and habitat destruction accelerate acceleration is driven by forest fires, illegal logging, land conversion of peatland forests into plantations and farms.

Forest damage caused by illegal logging, gold mining impacts, and the emergence of land plants in the forest pakupakuan inhibiting forest regeneration has also contributed to habitat degradation proboscis. But the kind of damage a very negative impact on the habitat of proboscis monkey is the utilization of mangrove forests. Although the existence of fairly extensive mangrove on the beach, but the proboscis monkey habitat is very limited in the type of riverine mangrove.

Identification Meijaard (2000) suggests some priority areas in the proboscis monkey habitat protection and pressure that cause degradation of habitat in Borneo. Habitat degradation and its impact on hunting and konversilahan proboscis monkey population has reduced by 90% in 20 years and in the mangrove forest decline 3.1% per year (Bismark, 2002). In addition there has been a process of adaptation to the proboscis which pushed oil but can not be separated from the need to water sources, lakes and streams with different riparian vegetation as a river or small lake (Soendjoto et al., 2004).

2.3. Fauna Habitat Diversity on proboscis monkey

Borneo rainforest habitat has a high diversity of fauna, where more than 420 species of birds and 222 species of mammals live in the forests of Borneo. Over 50% of birds and more than 35% kind of mammals are endemic Borneo, where 60% and 81% of bird species of mammals live in the lowland forests (Curran et al., 2004).

Biodiversity in Borneo is a large part of Indonesia's biodiversity, including flora and fauna, which became the basis for the development of capital diverse cultures and tribes. A variety of ceremonial and ritual activities commonly carried by many tribes in Indonesia can not be separated from the use of biodiversity. Biodiversity (genetic diversity, species, and ecosystems) Indonesia is the highest in the world, and these natural resources as capital construction, but the problems encountered is how to sustainably utilize biodiversity (Sumardja, 2000).

The threat to diversity of fauna in Borneo is also triggered by the El-Nino causes drought affecting the fruiting season changes that are inconsistent with the reproduction of fauna as determinants of population sustainability. Additionally konsesihutan based timber, plantation establishment, and weak oversight has increased habitat fragmentation and deforestation fauna (Curran et al., 2004).

2.3.1. Mammals

Generally, nutrient poor soil in Borneo especially in upstream forest dominated by dipterocarp forest. Low soil nutrient impact on plant productivity terutamatumbuhan animal feed sources (Meijaard et al., 2006), so the low herbivor animal biomass. In this case herbivor large animals, ungulate needs salt (salt licks), including proboscis monkeys require high bermineral feed sources such as mangrove forests. The low mineral dipterocarp forest land affects the distribution and stability of herbivorous animal population (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988).

Low levels of soil fertility causing plants produce secondary compounds that leaves less desirable species, but there are species that are not affected by herbivor elements. Element is essential for vertebrate Ca as a key mineral. The low biomass, limited distribution and population herbivor cause mammalian predator population is low. In Borneo, for example, only found one kind of tiger, the clouded leopard, Neofelis nebulosa which tracks ever found in the forest floor under the bed where trees proboscis (Bismark, personal observation).

Mammals like the proboscis monkey habitat in peat bogs include orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), Macaca fascicularis, Presbytis spp., Hylobates agilis, and Helarctos malayanus. While in the mangrove forest mammals are more common are Macaca fascicularis and Presbytis cristata.Sistem existing mangrove tree roots above the soil surface is quite difficult for terrestrial animals such as Cervus unicoloruntuk moving on the forest floor, while small mammals linsang type is dominant on the forest floor mangrove.

2.3.2. Bird

Proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat with a high density of trees and has several strata according to the growth of saplings and poles make good habitat for bird species. Diversity of organisms in a community means a dalampendugaan the state of the environment of the community. In relation to bird species diversity in a community, Karr (1975) has suggested the hypothesis that species diversity in a community has a correlation with the existing resources in the community and also correlated with productivity maupunlaju flow of energy contained in those communities.

Limited number of birds in tropical forests due to the complexity of the interaction between community ecology of birds with habitat. Among ecological problems closely related to bird community succession rate is a factor that has been achieved by a forest, a state-related rainfall and musimbuah insect populations, habitat diversity and the relationship between birds and other wildlife. The difference between the habitat diversity of other habitats is largely influenced by physical factors such as climatic conditions as well as the vertical structure and composition of the canopy in each habitat (Bismark, 1986).

Mangrove forests have lower species diversity and rare are the fleshy fruits as bird food, especially fruit-eating birds. The high diversity of bird species in the mangrove forest ecosystems due to habitat conditions are relatively stable in undisturbed forest so there is consistency of food sources, especially insects and stable microclimate.

In a community that has a high diversity of tree species there are more kinds of rare birds and birds typically found in the community. When the community dengankeragaman low tree species diversity of bird species are high, many species is the type that has spread widely, especially to micro-habitat (Thiollay, 1992).

According to King et al. (1975), from 42 species of birds are found in the mangrove forest dominated by R. apiculata, a bird species that live only in mangroves (2.4%), which is Cyornis rufigastra. While other types have broad habitat includes lowland forest, secondary forest, and some even live in more open habitats.

Ciconia episcopus, Egretta, and Anhinga use mangrove forests as a place to rest. While Leptoptilos javanicus using tree B. mucronata as a nesting site. The types of Cuculidae family, Picidae, Muscicapidae, Eurylamiidae, danSylviidae, primarily insectivorous, feeding in the mangrove forest. In the dry season in Borneo, the insect population increases hingga3-9-fold as bird feed source (Pearson, 1975).

On bird habitat, state tree canopy vertical stratification, leaf density, wide canopy, and the number of trees will affect the diversity of bird species in each stratum. The similarity structure of the canopy at different places will allow the similarity number of bird species, and conversely the similarity structure of the leaves, but there are other types of animals as birds rivalry will lead to low diversity of bird species.

The high frequency of birds in strata 0-15 m can be caused by a condition suitable microhabitats, because at the height of the easier birds to fly doing foragingseperti looking for food. In addition, the editorial meeting at a high level serves as a protection against micro habitat stability in the lower classes so that the balance of temperature and humidity under tidakberfluktuasi higher strata. Based on observations in a single day fluktuasisuhu difference causes birds migrate from the top to the lower strata strata.

2.3.3. Reptiles

Reptiles that influence the proboscis monkey populations in antaranyaadalah Alligator River Tomistoma schlegelisebagai predators (Galdikas, 1985), Varanus salvator, and Ophiophagus hannah (cobra). Varanus salvator (lizard) more frequent contact with the ground or the floor of the forest, so the potential for the spread of ectoparasites proboscis monkeys, because there is often a proboscis monkey in the forest floor during the lunch break. Types of ectoparasites that live on and in the body of lizard habitat is Aponomma lucasi. Lizard foraging behavior in humid areas close to water sources allow infected ectoparasites lizard blood.

Parasites can reduce blood levels of iron in the blood and anemia that results in the process of respiration and metabolism (Moen, 1973; Baker and Warthon, 1952). Reptiles living on the forest floor also possible exposed to different types of endoparasites, such as bacteria that live pencernan canals. Graves et al. (1988) have analyzed the types of bacteria found in the feces (stool) reptile on Krakatau, which was discovered bacteria Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Acromonas, and Escherichia coli.

Movement, cruising areas, and a lizard activity is strongly influenced by the ambient temperature. For that lizard occupies microhabitat under large rocks to maintain balance body temperature (Christian et. Al., 1983).

Behavior lizard in search of microhabitat on the rocks and moist areas near water sources that can support the development shady louse populations (ixodidae) where the female louse eggs hatch in the soil will soon find landlady. A. lucasi has a wide distribution, so the possibility terserangnya lizards and snakes by ticks is large enough decline in habitat quality, especially larval ectoparasite A. lucasi, most likely it can affect proboscis.

Ixodidaedapat cause health problems in humans or animals. In animals can cause anemia and can transmit the disease typhoid, tularemia, and "Q fever" in humans (Baker and Wharton, 1952).

2.3.4. Aquatic Fauna

Fauna that live in habitats in the waters around the proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat, especially shrimp, crabs and other types of shrimp ikan.Kepiting and include sources of animal protein consumed by the proboscis. Fauna river habitatbekantan economically valuable peat swamp forest is the arowana fish (Sclerophagus formosus) is now the population is threatened by water pollution, high traffic in the waters of the river, and fishing in nature.

In addition to environmental problems such as water pollution, deforestation also affects the diversity and populations of fish in the upper river, especially riparian forests that are part of the management of production forests. The results of studies comparing the effects of conventional forest management (CNV) and the system reduce impact logging (RIL) to the flow of nutrients and water quality in the headwaters in East Kalimantan Malinau showed significant differences.

The high N / P ratio and the residue suspended in water RIL showed high organic matter produced and dilepasdari RIL logged forest as a source of minerals and nutrients for marine life. Nevertheless, the value of N / P ratios with numbers above 20 still indicates that the waters of the river is in the condition oligotropik nutrientdan first manufacturer of low-input, high transparency, and spread evenly fish species (IETC, 1999).

Seturan River research station, where there are areas Malinau RIL and CNV experiments have identified 28 species of fish.

2.3.5. Parasite

Interaction of primate populations by parasites would have a negative effect on population growth and resilience. Parasites can decrease energy efficiency pulamengakibatkan host animal metabolism and decreasing function of the existing systems of the body, such as the circulatory system and the body's heat balance (Moen, 1973).

Endoparasites proboscis can be known through feces and can diidentiftkasi in the laboratory. While it is known that the dominant type of endoparasites proboscis is Trichiuris worms. Besides the proboscis monkey feces found Ascaris eggs and other types of nematodes.

Trichiuris quite dangerous in primates, and this type generally found in Macaca fascicularis (Matsubayashi et al., 1981), orangutans and chimpanzees (Rijksen, 1987). Other types of endoparasites in the digestive tract orangutan is Strongyloides, Enterobius buckleyi, Arborviata Caucasian, Pithecostrongyloides, Trichostrongyloides, and Gasterodiscoides, and the rehabilitated orangutans are found Ankylostoma basiliensi (Rijksen, 1978). While on M. fascicularis found Oesophagustinum, Streptopharagus, Strongyloides, and Bertiella (Matsubayashi, 1981). In the mangrove forests, proboscis monkeys living together with a group M. fascicularis and therefore it is possible parasite found in M. fascicularis also found in the proboscis.

CHAPTER 3

GROUP STRUCTURE

In nature there are no mammals living soliter.Paling really no need for couples in marriage or kebutuhanpemeliharaan, such as feeding in infancy. Thus, animals need social relationships, and social life of primates dapatterlihat through social systems with flocking.

Important factors that affect large groups and social organization of primates is the source of feed (Jolly, 1972; Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1977; Gittin and Raemakers, 1980), predator pressure (Jolly, 1972; Tilson, 1977), and the effect of parasites (Freeland , 1976). According to Terborgh (1984) major primate groups are formed by the result of the interaction with the environment types, covering the body and demographics, as well as in gender selection. Primates are polygamy, and in life related to competition selected through a huge difference in the body and muscle growth type males (Clutton-Brock, 1977).

3.1. Morphology and Geometry

Proboscis adults show differences in the shape and body size between males and females (sexual dimorphism) (Kern, 1964; Bennett and Sebastian, 1988; Yeager, 1989). This difference is seen in the body and the shape of the nose. Types of males have a relatively large nose, external genitalia, there are areas of white triangles on the hips (Figure 10) and the development of strong muscles. Females are relatively smaller, nipples distinctly smaller and pointy nose. Male body weight ranged from 20-22 kg and 10-12 kg betinaantara (Yeager, 1990). Weight loss male proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest ranges between 22-27 kg and females between 8-17 kg (Bismark, 2005).

The difference in the shape and size of the proboscis of male and female body (known as the geometry of the body) include the length of the body and the head (or height when sitting), shoulder width, tail length, and body surface area. Sitting height, shoulder width, and tail length parameter is specified as a simple geometric body proboscis used to differentiate age classes bekantan the animal rested in a seated position with the tail hanging down.

The difference in male and female proboscis geometry seen in the shape of the nose, where the nose larger males and females more pointed. In addition, female shoulder width (17.5 to 18 cm), equal to 2/3 the width of the shoulders males (23-32 cm) tall and females (55-58 cm), equal to 4/5 of the height of males (60-73 cm) so that the female's body surface area equal to 2/3 the surface area of ​​the male body. Adult female body size is almost the same as the male half of adults.

According to Bennett and Sebastian (1988) a large body of proboscis half grown more than 3/4 of the adult body, while the juvenile is less than 3/4 parts of the adult body. Although half the adult male sitting height equal to 3/4 of an adult male, but the shoulder width equal to 2/3 of the adult and body surface area together with 1/2 of the total adult body.

Apart from the size of the body and the signs are dikemukakanBennett and Sebastian (1988), determination of age-class proboscis monkeys can be seen from the comparison of long tail with a seat height (E / Td) and seat height with wide shoulders (Td / B). This comparison can be observed in the field when proboscis in a resting state with posisiduduk.

For adult age classes and half adults, the value of E / td sekitar1 where the height and length of the tail is relatively the same, while for older age class, tail length is 1 ⒟ height while the baby, his tail more than 13/4 high seat.

Index Td / B for males is 2.63 or height equal to 22/3 the width of the shoulders. Index on adult female with the male half of adult index is 3 or higher seat 3 times the width of the shoulders, while for older age classes and baby, body length and head equal to 22/3 the width of the shoulder, similar to the index in adult males.

Geometry parameters are easily observed in the field and is closely related to a large body of proboscis which is characterized by body surface area is high seat and shoulder width. The analysis of these parameters is determined mathematically by the variety and number of samples available. Of samples available, male and female proboscis monkey can represent each age class, although not in the same amount.

The surface area of ​​the limbs (legs and arms) proboscis average is 52.65% of the body surface area. In deer weighing 60 kg, expansive movement members only 36.9%. In this case, the release of heat by convection through the legs of a deer is relatively large compared with a finish on kaannya (Moen, 1973). Proboscis monkeys are arboreal conducting activities with relative limb surface area larger than a deer (52.65%) allowing the release of body heat by convection through the relatively greater limb at the time of quadrupedal movement (movement by using the four legs).

According to the observations, proboscis monkey more active break after eating (42.3%). At the break of ruminant animals process food in the digestive tract and is currently too much spite heat through the digestive tract (Moen, 1973). In this connection, proboscis monkey has a larger volume of the digestive tract of other leaf-eating primates, ie 8371 cm ³, while the type Presbytis melalophos, P. rubicunda, and P. obscura respectively 3168, 3113, and 3805 cm ³ (Bennett, 1983). To maintain temperature balance, proboscis monkey to rest or sleep in a sitting position with the limb held to the body to release heat by convection and evaporation can be reduced.

3.2. Social Systems

Factors affecting jumIah individuals in primate social groups and organizations are population density, food resources, predators, and an enabling environment to nurture children well. A very influential factor among the above factors also depends on the type of satwanya. It is also influenced by the behavior phylogenetiksatwa (Raemakers and Chivers, 1980) or gender, such as female behavior is highly dependent on food resources compared with males (Bennett, 1983).

The main factor that determines the social behavior of primates is the selection of the feed and the tendency of mammals to adopt polygyni (Raemakers and Chivers, 1980). In birds, monogamous system actually acts as males will do anything, especially when females lay eggs (Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1977; Raemakers and Chivers, 1980).

Groups of primates in small quantities with a narrow territorial, seldom scatter in search of food, forcing kelompokini form monogamous social systems (groups of 2-6 people), especially males, as the females are not able to maintain their own territory. Maintain territorial behavior will allow to ensure their children in order to grow (Raemaekers and Chivers, 1980). Presbytis clustered in relatively large quantities (5-19 people) looking for food in a space odyssey (home range) is split by forming groups of children as an adaptation to the limitations and the spread of food resources (Curtin, 1980).

Predator also affects social behavior. Primates in large groups would communicate better at detecting predators and food resources thus increasing rescue efforts against predators (Sussman, 1977). It is very important to the physical structure of the habitat is disturbed. Disturbed habitat can affect changes in the composition and number of individuals in the proboscis monkey (Yeager, 1991).

3.3. The composition of the Group

Proboscis monkey populations are scattered from coast to forest dipterocarp-dominated upstream a distance of 70 km from the coast (Bismark and Iskandar, 2002), in the North Barito Moody River, 600 km daripantai, and even in South Kalimantan jungle rubber which is 300 km from the coast ( Soendjoto et al., 2005). Proboscis monkey population found scattered unevenly, in East Kalimantan Sangatta River (1986) spread across the 4-25 km (mean 10.6 km) and dispersed within 18-40 km (Bismark and Iskandar, 2002).

Carrying capacity of the habitat of the magnitude seen in the population age class structure proboscis. Proboscis monkey populations constructed by groups of proboscis with the number of individuals varies greatly, which is between 6-16 individuals per group (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988), 3-17 individuals (Yeager, 1992), and 17-25 individuals (Bismark, 1994 ). Shocked at the island which covers 247 ha once there are 19 groups of proboscis monkeys by the number of individual groups ranged from 4-24 individuals (Bismark, 1997).

The average individual groups of proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest Kutai National Park is 21 individuals (17-25 people). The number of individual groups of proboscis monkeys are quite varied between 6-16 individuals (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988), 12-27 individuals (Kern, 1984), 11-56 individuals (Ruhiyat, 1986), and 3-17 individuals (Yeager et al. , 1989).

In general, the number of members of the primate group waktutertentu intervals have the same social system. For the group with the possibility that individual variation in the amount of 5-25 have more than one social system. Dimak social system is a multi-sud lazy (many males), one male with several females, the system switching between members of the group (fission fusion), polygamy, monogamy, and solitary.

There are differences of opinion about the social system proboscis. Kern (1964) argued that the social system proboscis slightly loose so that the split and merge between members of different groups. With this system it can be found that a group of more than 60 individuals (Kern, 1964; Bismark, 1986). Salter et at. (1985) found a group of up to 50 individuals who then split up when leaving the bed and the location of this group can be classified in fussion fission.

Yeager (1989, 1990, 1991) reported that harem social system is stable while the proboscis before Kawabe and Mano (1972) dalamYeager (1990) describes that the system is a multi-male proboscis monkey. When viewed from a number of individuals, groups, proboscis varies among individuals 17-25 then in primate social systems proposed Terborg (1984), the possibility of a social system proboscis is multi-male.Sistem harematau social proboscis is more determined on the amount and stability of the males in the group.

Haremterlihat system while formation of subgroups. Social system proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest is more directed to a multi-male, where in each group there is more than one adult male. Comparison of individual adult males with adult females (seksrasio) is 1:2,55. In addition, the movement of members between groups also occurred (Bismark, 1994). Ruhyat study (1986) showed that the group has a male proboscis monkey studied adults between 1-5 individuals to groups of 11-56 individuals.

The role of males in the group seksdimorphismeadalah to defend his territory, especially related to food resources. For those types of primates are less selective feed resources, social organization will lead to a large group of multi-maledan sex dimorphismedan even fission-fusion social system (Raemakers and Chivers, 1980).

The difference in social systems proboscis monkeys closely related to the condition of habitat and food resources. Proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat riverinememiliki characteristics of low species diversity but high density, and are the dominant tree species, namely R. apiculata the principal food sources (71.9%) in the feed composition proboscis. This species is dominant and form density zoning with 391 trees per ha and has the quality of organic and mineral content is good. This condition can avoid competition among males in maintaining the space odyssey and this is seen also in the narrow space odyssey of the proboscis is 19.4 ha. From this analysis shows that the condition of the habitat, the quality and quantity of food resources in the mangrove forest can reduce competition among males that leads to the formation of multi-male groups.

Competition can also be avoided by utilizing the ability of proboscis monkeys in the forest floor as a place to rest and simply split the group members form a child (sub) group is a relatively small number of members. Formation of sub-groups merupakanstrategi in eating behavior. The use of the forest floor to run a benefit for energy savings and ease of separation and incorporation of sub-groups (Raemaker and Chivers, 1980). Behavior forming sub-groups and semi-terrestrial seen also in M. fascicularis (Kurland, 1973; Aldrich-Blake, 1980), Presbytis obscura and Presbytis melalophos (Curtin and Chivers, 1979).

Proboscis subgroups ranged from 1-19 individuals (average 8.5). There are subgroups that do not have a male, in this case consists only of adult females, half adults, teens, and babies; sub-groups there that have one, two, and three adult males.

Freksuensi formation of sub-groups with one adult male was the highest (43.86%) with a number of individuals 2-17 or 9.12 average individual. This sub-group formation occurs when proboscis implement daily activities, foraging, and resting. Sub-groups can also occur while in sleep location, on the banks of the river. The frequency of each individual number in a subgroup. Sub-groups have one adult male with the average number of individuals equal to the 9.12 average of the proboscis monkey (9 people) with a harem social system (uni-male) were stable (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988).

Formation of sub-groups that began proboscis left tree beds associated with the use of time foraging efficiency and energy savings for movement activity. It is also with scattered dimung kinkan prestudy main food source Rhizophora apiculata. Distribution of sub-groups within the 50-150 m (average 96 m) to each other also aims to reduce the possibility of conflicts between individuals within groups and is useful in controlling the range area. Merging sub-group re-occur when going back to the river for the night.

Separation and merging the individual not only happened on some sub-groups of the same group. The merger also occurred between pok clogs, especially at the river bed (Bismark, 1986). In 1985 the group proboscis Sangkimah River joins the Kutai National Park in the amount of more than 80 individuals and 117 individuals within 3-7 days (average 5.5 days). By the time the opening has not been much going on mangroves for ponds and settlement. Merging with another group one associated with anti-predator behavior (Yeager, 1992).

With the trend of increasing the number of members in the sub-groups with more than one male reinforces that the proboscis monkey in the mangrove forests were more likely to be multi-male.Hal is reinforced with rare (3.5%) agonistikantar males in a group or between groups . Case agonistic activity can be seen from the tree branches shake and keep wide open mouth and erect penis in males (Yeager, 1992).

In Table 20 shows that the sub-group may consist of males only and there are separate male (solitary). Because individuals in the form of sub-groups, it can rejoin the group. According to Bennett and Sebastian (1988) group of males and solitary males generally join the harem, especially when you are on the river bank.

The case of the proboscis monkey fission-fusiondalam seen in a group consisting of 17 individuals, in August 1993 changed to 22 individuals. Changes due to the addition of 4 adult females with 2 babies and one adult male discharge (Bismark, 1994). Case displacement adult females with infants also dila reported by Bennett and Sebastian (1988).

Transfer of adult females from one group to another occurs when the association or group merging with other groups on the river bank. Transfer of adult females among different groups also occur in Papio hamadryas monkeys, Colobus badius, Alouatta seniculus, Alouatta palliata, Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodiates, and Colobus Satanas (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988). Transfer of females is advantageous in avoiding inbreeding occurs, improving the social status of females, to avoid competition in getting food, and avoid the possibility of infanticide by the dominant male, and to Menda patkan stable group in order to maintain good children.

CHAPTER 4

POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION

Wetland forests include peat swamp forests, riverside forests, and brackish forests, considered to be very potential to be developed into cultivated area to support the local and regional economy. Utilization can be attributed to the management of production forests, agricultural land development and development of the region. In terms of ecosystem, swamp forest acts as a rainwater thus serves as flood control, drinking water, and seawater intrusion prevention (Claridge, 1994). If the wetland logging done in an uncontrolled, it will have an impact on changes in the water system so that the frequency of flooding and water rising rapidly flowing towards the river (Bennet and Gombek, 1991). In addition, the area has a diversity of wetland flora and fauna biodiversity in the form of high and serves as a habitat for a variety of wildlife, useful to support the social and economic life of local communities in the form of utilization of non-timber forest products such as gum jelutung, fruits, and River fish community source of animal protein.

Occupational communities in wetland forest starts from the river as the main means of transport in the region. Increased frequency of use of the river as a means of transport led to increased settlement growth and utilization of riparian forests such as forest and land-use expansion hutanuntuk fields or gardens. Though forest river border as wide as 100 m are included in the category of protected area.

In Borneo, swamp forests along the banks of the river and riverine mangroves on the coast, is a potential area as wildlife habitat. Proboscis monkeys are one of the leaf-eating primates endemic to Borneo, whose population is highly dependent on the quality of wetland ecosystems, especially mangrove forests and riparian forests, and intolerant of habitat disturbance (Wilson and Wilson, 1975; Bennet and Gombek, 1991; Yeager, 1992 ). Based on reports McNeely et al. (1990) of 29 500 square km proboscis monkey habitat, 40% have been lost, while the proboscis monkey habitat that is included in the conservation area is only 4.1%. Because of the construction of settlements and agricultural areas along the river are likely to increase, then the impact will affect habitat degradation and endemic wildlife populations. One indicator of the impact of habitat destruction on biodiversity swamp forest animals, among them the proboscis monkey population decline.

Distribution of proboscis monkeys in Borneo has been documented by Meijaard and Nijman (2000) at 30 locations and distribution of information obtained proboscis in 123 other locations scattered in the mangrove forest, small islands, deltas, along the river, and peat swamp forests. More than 20% of the population scattered in coastal areas, 18% spread between 100-200 km from the coast, 16% between 20-100 km, and 58% of the population is spread 50 km from the coast, even found in the 300 km from the coast and up to 750 miles from the coast. 90% distribution locations proboscis lies at an altitude below 200 m above sea level (asl) and the highest ever reported lies at 350 m above sea level.

Distribution and proboscis monkey habitat in South Kalimantan have been reported by Soendjoto (2005) and Bismark (1997), in East Kalimantan by Bismark and Alexander (2002) and Ma'ruf et al. (2005). Areal distribution priorities proboscis with pressure up to 1997 have been identified by Meijaard (2000).

Proboscis monkey habitat are easily visited in South Kalimantan Island include some of the region in the form Shocked the nature reserve inhabited by three groups of proboscis monkeys (4-10 and 11 people) with a system of group 1 adult male and adult female 3-4. The total population on the island in 1996 Shocked is 288 individuals in the area of ​​267 ha (Bismark, 1997). Around the island Startled, Puduk Island, and still found the island Temurung proboscis with 7-25 individudan shell Island there are 3 groups of each 7, 7, and 12 individuals (Bismark, 1997).

Observations proboscis monkey population in the Mahakam Delta Kalimantan conducted by Ma'ruf et al. (2005). The study was conducted in the Mahakam River estuary with geographical 00'26 "06,2-00 '41" 26.2 N and 117'19 "13.7 to 117 '31" 26 BT. Mahakam River estuary known as the Mahakam Delta has a diversity of wildlife and one of them is the proboscis monkey. The population of these animals has not been widely known, while in the Mahakam Delta community activities increased with the development of aquaculture and mining coal. These activities will affect the habitat and food resources proboscis. Mahakam River estuary traffic flow sufficient padatoleh freighter coal, timber, and tankerminyak from Samarinda, may also affect the proboscis monkey populations. Distribution of proboscis monkey population at the mouth of the Mahakam River.

Meanwhile proboscis monkey habitat has now been reduced due to the use of the area by the river into the ponds, feed the tree utilization and tree to sea RAMBAI Heritiera littoralis and palm rest. From Figure 15 shows that the utilization of coastal areas (purple) by the community for the farms, the average farm size of between 2-5 acres. Preliminary interpretation indicates that 75% of the Mahakam River estuary has been run into the pond. Kemungkinanbertambahnya clearing forests for farms or other businesses is huge. The remaining 25% is an area that is divided into 10% proboscis monkey habitat (there are trees feed) and 15% palm habitat (Ma, Ruf, 2005).

4.1. Population

Proboscis monkey population surveys have been conducted to researchers at the National Park (TN) Kutai, among researchers who reported the proboscis monkey population is Wilson and Wilson (1975) and Rodman (1987). Both reported that the proboscis is hard to find during their research progress. Wilson and Wilson (1975) found three groups of proboscis monkeys in Sangatta River estuary and Rodman (1978) found in the upper reaches of the proboscis Sangatta. The population of proboscis monkeys in the mangroves are concentrated in the forest complex Sangkimah River, Gulf of Kaba, Pemedas River, and the river of Padang. Sangkimah River along 2 km of the coast there are a number of 117 individuals proboscis (Bismark, 1986).

Proboscis monkey population density in some areas is reported between 8.3 to 58 individuals / km ² (Table 21). Several studies conducted by the proboscis monkey populations and Blondal Yeager (1992), Ruhiyat (1986), Yasuma (1989), and Bennett and Sebastian (1988). Yeager and Blondal (1992) has suggested his analysis that the habitats are damaged, the density of proboscis 9 individuals per km ², the next is 25 people per km ² on the damage a bit heavy, 33 people per km ² in habitats with moderate damage, and 62 individuals in habitat with light damage. Proboscis monkeys are sensitive to habitat destruction (Wilson and Wilson, 1975) so that the proboscis monkey populations can be an indicator of the level of destruction of mangrove forests and riverside forests.

The river is long, fairly wide (7 -> 10 m), and in, the presence of mangrove trees are relatively tall and large in diameter and available source of fresh water that allows the formation of riverine mangrove forests in the habitat, ecological and behavioral support needs proboscis. The river includes important ecological components affecting every habitat selection by the proboscis in hutanbakau including proboscis monkeys in the jungle rubber that require water or a small lake as part of their habitat (Soendjoto et al., 2006). Mangrove forests surrounding the river is higher productivity compared to other types of mangrove forests (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1984). Higher trees will provide security for the proboscis monkey. Besides sleep behavior proboscis that always choose a location on the banks of the river for the purpose of securing a group of predators and to communicate (Bismark, 1986; Yeager, 1990). For the proboscis, the river serves as a source of drinking water and facilities for swimming, while A. officinalis is in the river, as well as tree feed source jugasebagai bed of leaves and fruits are high in protein and minerals. Differences in size and population groups according to changes in the ecosystem of the estuary upstream.

On the river, there are 3 sub-populations Sangatta proboscis spread from the mouth to the headwaters within 18-40 km. Sub-population is composed of groups of proboscis monkeys 1-4 in the 1-2 km of riparian forests (Bismark and Iskandar, 1997). Previously, Suzuki (1986) reported that the distribution of sub-populations of proboscis monkeys in TN Kutai between 4-25 km (mean 10.6 km), the present sub-group dispersed within an average of 30 km (Bismark and Iskandar, 2002). This situation is indicative of the declining quality of the forest as a habitat for proboscis.

The number of individuals affected by the quality of the proboscis monkey habitat dantipe. In the upstream, the proboscis monkey group consisting of 6-15 individuals and 10 km from the mouth, the proboscis monkey generally ranges between 10-25 individuals. Group of proboscis monkeys in a disturbed mangrove forest ranges between 6-10 individuals, mangrovedengan forest vegetation cover, great group of between 17-25 individuals. Observations in several survey sites showed no difference in the number of proboscis monkeys were observed, the number of observations on the first day of observation is different from the next day. This difference represents a correction value calculating population data in proboscis, which is 1.8. According Yasuma (1989), the value of this correction is 2.46. Based on the value of the correlation, the proboscis monkey populations in TN Kutai (Table 23) allegedly amounted to 400 people.

The high frequency of encounter proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat and NYPA also reported by Bennett and Sebastian (1986); Salter et al. (1985), and Ma, Ruf (2004). Given the limited proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat the greatest threat to the population of proboscis monkey is the destruction of mangrove forests, particularly in conservation areas which conserve only 8% of the mangrove area in Kalimantan. Report on the proboscis and in the current population is relatively small.

In the 90's, in TN Tanjung Puting the peat swamp forest habitat is estimated there are only 2000 people in Sarawak proboscis and proboscis estimated total population of 1,000 individuals and 300 individuals in the conservation area (Yeager and Blondal, 1992). In 1986 McKinnon estimated population of proboscis only 250,000 individuals, 25,000 of which are outside the conservation area, while the proboscis monkey is in the conservation area of ​​less than 5,000 individuals (Yeager and Blondal, 1992), whereas in the conservation area itself covers only 4.1% of all proboscis monkey habitat (McNeely et al., 1990) and in 1994 the population of proboscis monkeys in Borneo estimated number of 114,000 individuals (Bismark, 2002).

4.2. Proboscis Monkey Population Threat

Population of proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest can reach 60 people per km ² (Bismark, 1986). Seen from the age composition in kelompokdan number of infants up to 4 individuals in the group showed that the reproduction rate is high enough proboscis. In 9 years of observation in TN Kutai proboscis monkey population the number of individuals per km ² decreased by 28.2% or an average of 3.1% seta hun. Population decline is due to the increasing intensity of habitat destruction on the banks of the river and the destruction of mangrove forests.

In 1985, the population of proboscis monkeys in Tanjung Puting TN is 62.9 people per km ², in 1989 fell to 27.7 people per km ², and 41 people per km ² in 1991. Within 6 years there has been a population decline of 35% or about 6% a year. This is due to the increasing pollution of river water due to gold mining, habitat degradation, and increased traffic transport streams (Yeager, 1992). Population decline may be caused by increased predator population due to forest clearing. In rivarianpopulasi forest lizard (Varanus salvator) is quite high and the lizard is one of the potential predators primates (Rodman, 1978; Yeager, 1990).

Population differences among primate species, in addition affected by the level of destruction of habitation (Yeager and Blondal, 1992, Wilson and Wilson, 1975; Happel et al., 1987; Marsh and Wilson, 1981) is also determined by predator pressure (Jolly, 1972 ; Tilson, 1977; Bennett, 1983), parasites (Rijksen, 1978, Freeland, 1976), and geographic distribution (Happel et al., 1987; Chivers, 1974), social systems (Happel et al., 1987) as well as patterns and eating behavior, such as leaf-eating primates higher population than frugivorous primates (Chivers and Raemaker, 1980; Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1977), and differences in digestive physiology (Bennett, 1983).

Population growth that looks good on degraded habitat on the island Shocked. Habitat dominated caseolaris Sonneratia trees scattered between 20-55 m from the edge of the river with a density of 150 trees per hectare, the proboscis monkey still persist in the amount of nearly 300 individuals in the area of ​​267 ha. Only 25% of the population looks less adapted to these conditions (Bismark, 1997). The population is quite high when compared with the population of proboscis monkeys in TN Kutai with area 200,000 hectares, some 400 people (Bismark and Iskandar, 1996). The population on the island Shocked looks can adapt to sources of feed water plants Limnocharis flava, Agapanthus africanus, Hymenachne amplicaulis and vittis trifolia. Aquatic plants are eaten primates have a higher mineral content than plants feed on the dry plains primates (Oates, 1978). To maintain the population, proboscis monkeys need enough minerals (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988), such as K, it takes sejum was 179.9 mg / kg body weight / day (Bismark, 1995), whereas Vittis trifolia known to contain high concentrations of K, ie 1.06%.

Hunting of primates for the ecosystems something common to animal protein needs. The hunt primates on the island of Siberut example is a part of culture and custom masyarakat.Hal as the control population for the island tidakterdapat mammalian predators. Hunting and farming is the main problem in the proboscis monkey population decline, especially since 35 years ago where hunting and gun ownership boatmulai speed developed in the community (Meijaard and Nijman, 2000), where the river bank is the proboscis monkey habitat area first opened. The development of plant cultivation with fruits cause proboscis fields went to get food. This raises the presumption proboscis as a pest and hunted (Soendjoto, personal communication), but it is also hunted proboscis monkeys as bait to catch a lizard (V. salvator) in order to get the lizard skin as a source of additional income.

Forest fires are very influential on the proboscis monkey habitat. As a result of forest fires in Tanjung Puting (1997) has destroyed 75% of forests and wetlands in TN Kutai leaves 5% proboscis monkey habitat due to forest fires (Meijaard and Nijman, 2000). Wildfires may increase mortality due to reduced food resources, loss of habitat, and the incidence of the disease is endemic (Proboscis Monkey PHVA, 2004).

Based on the above problems, the Proboscis Monkey PHVA (2004) identified 12 locations and its proboscis monkey population estimated total number of individuals individuals proboscis monkeys in Borneo is 25,000 individuals, within the konservsi approximately 5,000 individuals. In this proboscis monkey conservation efforts required extensive damage prevention and reduction of habitat by illegal loggingyang can lead to forest fires and poaching, forest river border security as well as the conservation of species habitat outside mangrove and peat swamp areas, such as in the plantation area.

CHAPTER 5

DAILY AND EXPLORE THE MOVEMENT

Daily activities include activities proboscis monkey walk, feed, play, rest, and mutual lice or investigate. Daily activities starting from the riverbank where the groups and sub-groups of the night. Proboscis monkeys woke up at about 5:30 to begin the activity by moving from branch where sleeping position and reverses at 6:15 lai feeding activity, daily activities end at pukul18.30 afternoon.

In the mangrove forest, riverside proboscis activity can last from dawn until 7:45 am the day, such as eating daunAvicennia officinalis or Rhizophora apiculata around her tree. When moving early, proboscis monkey can reach a radius of 400 m from the river bank. In general, at 07.00, proboscis monkey is already on position 100 m from the river bank. During daily activities berlang sung, the proboscis can be divided into 2-3 sub groups. Movement patterns, shapes, and wide space odyssey of primates in general is closely related to the distribution and the amount of feed sources (Jolly, 1972; Whitten, 1982), the distribution of tree beds, and weather (Chivers, 1974).

Parameter daily movement activities include long proboscis proboscis dilaIui track in one day (DR, daily range), the maximum radius is measured from the proboscis taken tempattidur location (MR, maximum radius) and the distance between the transfer of the original location of sleep the next night (NPS, posisition night shift) (Chivers, 1974; Gumarya, 1986, Megantara, 1989) within a period of proboscis movement. Farthest distance from the riverbank (TS) were also measured as motion parameters.

5.1. Daily Movement

Daily movement led by adult female proboscis. The movement starts from the tree of the bed where the direction of movement is determined. This situation was also reported by Rajanathan and Bennett (1990) for more females need a good source of food for their children (Bennett, 1983).

Rubber forest vegetation with little variation by water source (in this sense include vegetated area or land area within 100 m from the edge of the water) is an important part of the proboscis monkey habitat. Based on the encounter with the proboscis in 18 locations in the region Tabalong District, South Kalimantan, Soendjoto et al. (2005) revealed that statistically, there is a positive correlation between the real and rubber springs in the forest with the presence of proboscis. The source of water is not only a starting point for activities proboscis during the day or the end point to stop activity during the day, but also for social activities, including breaks.

Transfer of the proboscis occurs twice in one day. The first transfer occurred from a particular water source that is used as the location of sleep to another water source, the proboscis monkey do most of the activities during the day. The second transfer occurs from water sources for the event this afternoon next to a water source that is used as a location to sleep at night. This explanation reinforces the idea Bismark (1986) that the pattern of movement-oriented proboscis on where to sleep, where to eat, and rest.

Switching between sources of water twice a day dilakukanoleh 70% of the proboscis, and 30% of them make the shift once a day. Switching between sources of water carried by the proboscis in the early, middle, and late afternoon. Switching more often done at 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. hour and rarely performed at 11:00 to 14:00.

Daily movement proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest average is 497 m as reported by Bennett and Sebastian (1988) is 300-590 m (average 483 m). According to Bennett and Sebastian (1988) there is a group that goes as far proboscis 1400 at 12:30 am and is expected to journey a day up to 2,000 m. Proboscis daily movement distance from the edge of the river reached 750 m (Salter et al., 1985). In general, the only daily movement of 600 m (Bennett and Sebastian, 1985). Per the daily movement patterns of proboscis is very dependent on the selection of tree location on the banks of the river bed, forming a semi-circular or elliptical pattern. Switching locations to sleep on the opposite side of the river through the movement of primates berenang.Jarak positively correlated with body weight and the number of individuals in the subgroup of men foraging (Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1977).

In general, the location of primates bed position is located in the center of the developm baraan, as Hylobates klossii occupying sleeping tree in the middle range area two times more than at the edge of space odyssey (Whitten, 1980). Location Presbytis aygula sleep position is on the edge of space odyssey (Ruhiyat, 1986), so that the daily movement patterns are affected by displacement tempattidur location.

Presbytis aygula running (DR) between 300-600 m (average 500 m) per day, MR 250-900 m with NPS 0-400 (average 221 m) (Ruhiyat, 1986). Presbytis femoralis runs, DR 929 m on average per day, MR 237 m, and 130 m NPS (Megantara, 1989). Presbytis Thomasi runs, DR 150-1300 m (average 640 m), MR 140-590 m, and NPS 110-590 m (Kunkun, 1986).

Proboscis activity pattern correlation as has been discussed (MR = 101.86 + 0.669 NPS and DR = 41.30 + 1.825 MR). In a space odyssey proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest there are no constraints in terms of food resources, but the vegetation on the banks of the river as a location for a bed and food resources strongly influence the movement patterns of proboscis. The choice of location for primate bed serves to avoid predators and parasites (Freeland, 1976). Distance from the edge of the river odyssey primates are also influenced by the composition of the feed, in this case the comparison between the leaves and fruit. Primates "frugivorous" will be further away from the river bank (Rodman, 1978).

DR difference between the types of Colobinae influenced by habitat quality and diversity of food sources, such as P. melalophos (DR = 754 m) with a diversity of feed is higher than P. Thomasi (DR = 640 m) (Kunkun, 1986). The movement was also influenced by the energy needs according to weight. The more weight the more energy needed for movement, especially the vertical movement. Thus the orangutan with a weight of 55 kg runs sepanjang453 m per day shorter than the M. fascicularis weighing 5 kg which goes as far as 1869 m per day (Wheatley, 1982). Proboscis weight greater than other types Ceropithecidae allows for shorter daily movements than other types. The establishment and spread of sub-groups in search of food and a uniform distribution of trees in mangrove forests merupakansalah one factor that led to the short trips proboscis.

Statistically, the daily movement distance and real berkorelasinegatif proboscis with rainfall. Distance was decreased in the months with high rainfall and increases in the months of low rainfall (dry season).

As wildlife in general, especially for the proboscis monkey move limited feed and water in the surrounding environment. This limitation is related to the diversity of the type of feed, the acquisition, and far proximity to water sources. The increase in daily temperature on a sunny day allows proboscis walk far to find somewhere to shelter, feed and rest, and makes it possible for the proboscis to return quickly to the edge of the river in the afternoon. When the weather is sunny, bekantandi mangrove forests can walk reaches the maximum distance from the riverbank (TS) as far as 400 m at 8:15 pm or within 2 hours, and then eat and rest up at 14.30. The difference in air temperature at a location on the edge of the river is 100 m into the forest ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 ° C, while the temperature difference with the forest floor to the canopy tree height 15 m at location 100 m from the river bank between 0.5 -1.5 ° C.

Proboscis travel away into the woods when the temperature increases is an effort to maintain balance setting temperature (thermoregulation) body in the woods because of the lower temperatures. By the time the air temperature increases the release of body heat through evaporation also increased (Montheith and Unsworth, 1990). When the air temperature increases, the animals will decrease feeding activity and increased consumption of drinking water, as well as increased air humidity (Church et al., 1971).

5.2. Use of Forest Strata

The physical condition of their habitat built by vegetation structure, tree lighting, temperature and humidity, which affect the movement patterns of primates, particularly the pattern of vertical movement is the movement of primates by strata (height) canopy trees. In some species of primates simpatrik different uses of the strata showed differences in ecological niches of each species according to the anatomical organ movement (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1980).

Proboscis movement includes the movement of arboreal and terrestrial. The movement of the tree consists of arboreal quadrupedal movement, climbing, jumping, and hanging (the movement of the hand). Proboscis movement patterns under the canopy strata suggests that the activity of the vertical movement of proboscis monkeys in the mangrove forest is more common in strata 0-5 m (33.19%), at 5-10 m strata (24.28%), and the strata 10-15 m (27.53%) dengantipe quadrupedalyang movement became dominant (running with 4 limbs) (Fig. 19), while daily activities such as eating, rest, play, and social activity on the rubber forest habitat.

Generally there proboscis daily activities at the level of less than 15 m height with a canopy of lush by foliage. These conditions not only create a comfortable microclimate for the proboscis to sit rest or play, but also provides a safe place to avoid agonistic behavior, fights between individuals, hide or escape from predators. In the rubber forest and the lake, the trees are commonly used for the event include Macaranga pruinosa, Vitex pubescens, Dillenia exelsa, and Elaeocarpus stipularis (Soendjoto et al., 2005).

Frequency of use of the forest floor (0-5 m) more than the other strata pergerakan.Hal activity is related to the weight factor proboscis (adult females and adult males 12.5 kg 25 kg) requiring balance while walking, in addition to requiring branching tree with a rather large as infrastructure movement. Fleagle (1980) states that the use of vegetation by strata correlated with primate foraging strategy. In the mangrove forest with a fairly homogenous habitat conditions, the availability of food resources (leaves) in each stratum, strata proboscis monkey will choose to eat and places isitirahat, particularly in strata 10-15 m. The selection is related to the role of the strata above it is a protector. In this case the difference in air temperature above the canopy at 20 m below the 15 m up to 1.5 ° C (Bismark, 1994). The difference in temperature above the canopy (> 20 m) with the forest floor at 8:40 pm by 1 ° C and increased to 2.5 ° C at 12:00.

This condition also causes proboscis down to the forest floor to break and run, either in the woods or on the river bank.

5.3. Space Wandering

Space odyssey is the area used by individuals or groups with normal activity for feeding, mating, and care for children, and some are interpreted as the total area used (Mah and Aldrich-Blake, 1980). Rijksen (1978) defines as the total area used by an individual or a group home. In this study referred to as space is devel-baraan total area used the proboscis monkeys during the study. Jolly (1972) defines home range (space odyssey) as areas commonly inhabited by animals throughout his adult life.

Yeager (1989) reported that the space odyssey proboscis ranged from 125 to 137.5 ha (average of 130.3 ha) with 95.9% overlap areas, while areas that are part of a group (adjusted home range) was 19, 3 ha. Vast space odyssey proboscis in TN Kutai was 19.4 ha, not unlike the adjusted home raised rangeyang Yeager (1989). The narrowness of the space odyssey proboscis than due to habitat destruction also limited daily mileage of the river bank. Proboscis attachment and vegetation on the river banks of the river as the location of the bed, feed source, and the source of drinking water also resulted in limited space odyssey. The narrow range area is maintained through daily movement and the formation of sub-groups, voice, and agonistic behaviors that menyebabkanadanya overlapping space odyssey by 20.7 to 62.8%.

While the overlap area on the banks of the river as the location of a lack of sleep ranged from 23.8 to 100% is maintained. Lack upayamempertahankan bed location visible from the distance between groups of up to 50 m between the one with the other groups. This condition is a form of integration between groups as anti-predator behavior (Yeager, 1991), because they bed site selection by primates to be the main criteria in terms of safety from predators (Roosmalen, 1980; Whitten, 1982).

Space odyssey Colobinae types overlap. Ruangpengem baraan P. aygula area of ​​38 ha having overlap of 10% (Ruhiyat, 1983), P. melalophosdengan space odyssey between 14 to 31.3 ha overlapping reached 15-79% of its area (Bennett, 1988), P. femoral, with a space of 23.8 ha odyssey has overlap between 15.8 to 36.7% (Megantara, 1989). The overlap can be caused by a space odyssey areal extent to be maintained and thus require more energy. In addition jumlahdan equitable distribution of food resources lead no intense competition (Bennett, 1988).

Daily activities proboscis mangrove forest on the banks of the river during the day is to find food, rest, and play. The location and frequency of visits associated with the basal area of ​​trees Avicennia officinalis. Availability of food, leaves, and fruit of A. officina lis influenced basal area and tree canopy that provides a broad leaf. Besides the presence of proboscis monkeys will be more frequent at A. officinalis fruit so the presence of the men on the banks of the river is very important for the population of proboscis monkeys. In P. habitat melalophos, Leguminoceae basal area was positively correlated with population density (Marsh and Wilson, 1981). Association of individuals within the group and between groups generally occur at night in the river. This behavior plays a role in sleep pengamananlokasi from other animals and predators (Yeager, 1991). Association of the proboscis can be seen from the overlapping use of the area as a location on the banks of the river bed.

Proboscis monkeys sleep in trees A. officinalis and Rizophora apiculata whose position lies between 0-50 m from the edge of the river. Trees were selected as the bed, in addition to close to the edge of the river, also has a wide canopy with a horizontal branching. This condition is necessary for the body position while resting or sleeping in the balance. Trees that are closer to the edge of the river that is used for overnight generally not too high, ie 10-15 m. While the tree is used which is 20 m from the edge of the river is R. apiculata with a height of 20-30 m and the location of the tree canopy which is separated from the surrounding trees. Trees selected beds can be occupied by 3-15 people, so that during sleep the proboscis seemed to form sub-groups scattered between 50-150 m.

Yeager (1989) reported that the river flow long occupied by peat bogs proboscis monkey groups ranged from 1575-1750 m with an overlap between 92 to 97.7%. Tian Peneli Bennett and Sebastian (1988) showed that 19 groups of proboscis of the river along the 13.5 km each spanning the river between 1650-7500 m. The narrowness of the use of the river by a group of aquatic bekantandi TN due to the limited length of the river and the width of the mangrove habitat, in addition to no cases of proboscis hunting. Factors enabling the transfer of location hunting proboscis sleep relatively more distant. Although in the study area there are no cases of poaching, but habitat destruction more impact on narrowing the space odyssey and the cruise on the river bank.

In most cases (90%) locations will move proboscis sleep every day. The location can be used for two, three, and empatmalam respectively. The area of ​​the river along the 50 m can be occupied by 1-3 sub clogs pok consisting of 2-15 individuals. The selection of the location and movement of tree location of the bed, resting or sleeping position at the end of the branch and on the top of the tree canopy that is not related to the surrounding trees is a way to reduce the likelihood of proboscis monkeys predator attacks at night. Site selection and association proboscis sleep by the river is the social behavior of proboscis monkeys in the anti-predator strategy (Yeager, 1991).

Sleeping in a tree with a broad canopy with scattered resting position on the edge and the top of the canopy is an anti-predator strategy is to make it easier to detect the presence of predators and easy to jump. Predators that might attack her proboscis monkey in a tree is a kind of snakes and lizards. Lizard (V. salvador) and crocodile (Tomistoma sclegeli) are potential predators proboscis (Yeager, 1991), but in this case the proboscis monkeys do not develop anti-predator strategy of the crocodile (Galdikas, 1984).

CHAPTER 6

EATING BEHAVIOR

Primates have a particular feed composition, according to the habitat and season (Curtin and Chivers, 1979; Iwamoto, 1982; Harrison, 1984) so ​​that this state can show different patterns of eating behavior. Feeding behavior of primates closely related to the quality of food resources such as high levels of cellulose can not be digested and the presence of secondary compounds such as tannins in the feed so that the two components is a major factor in feeding ecology (feeding ecology) primate (Harison, 1984).

Richard (1977) examined eating technique, place and altitude, activity patterns, feed composition, the part that is eaten, and the amount of feed variation and movement patterns as parameters of feeding behavior. According to the amount and type of food, primates are classified in two types, ie more dominant frugivorousyang eat fruits and eat the leaves folivorousyang more dominant. Spare Hylobatidae including tipefrugivorous, while his tribe Colobinae (Presbytis spp., And Nasalis larvatus) belong to the type of folivorous.

Primates of the tribe Colobinae children have similar digestive systems of ruminants. The digestive system is known as polygastric, of which there are organ forestomach, where the fermentation of food by bekteri. From the result of the fermentation process are obtained (Bennett, 1983):

1. The bacteria that produce vitamins. Thus, animals are not overly dependent on the vitamins contained food, kecualivitamin A and D.

2. Bacteria that can use non-protein nitrogen to grow. Urea caused by protein catabolism can be converted by bacteria into protein. Bacteria can pass from the stomach to the intestines halussehingga animals received additional high-quality protein.

3. The use of urea in the synthesis of protein by the micro flora causes a decrease in the amount of urea thus saving the expense of water in the form of urine.

4. Bacteria that can neutralize the effect of tannins derived from edible plant species.

5. The large number of bacteria and the rapid proliferation rate of fermentation also causes fast that tannins in the process of making a new food is not active. In addition there is also degradation of carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids.

Primates monogastricseperti Hylobates spp. generally consume feed easily digestible, contain a lot of sugar and contains no alkoloid. Another difference between primates monogastricdengan Colobinae type is the unqualified requirement for certain nutrients where the primates monogastricmemakan feed with low nutrients in large quantities due to the digestive process much faster, while consuming Colobinaeakan highly nutritious plants (Bennett, 1983).

According to Milton (1981) voting behavior in primates feed related to body size and anatomy of the digestive tract. Relations with the anatomy of the digestive tract proboscis volume was greater among Colobinae other types.

6.1. Time Activity

Proboscis active starting at 05:30 until 18:30 or 13 hours a day. During this time the activity took place to walk, play, feed, or take a nap. Allocation harianbekantan activity or activities of the day varies according to the time (Figure 22). There are three peaks in one day activity is about 8.30, 12.30, and at 15.30. Activity began to increase at 7.00 that runs from the edge of the river into the forest until it reaches a maximum radius (MR).

Peak feeding activity is highest in the afternoon, while the peak of movement activity look different but follow the fluctuations feeding activity. This shows that the proboscis monkey feeding trees by moving moving. Around 12:00 feeding activity increased to 12.30 pm and then decreased, and the next activity followed by rest and sleep until 14:00.

Seen feeding activity ongoing in one day. This illustrates that in addition to the time-intensive meal, some of the members of the group remain a meal at an interval of rest though not in the high frequencies. Similar circumstances also reported Ruhiyat (1983) on P. aygula in West Java, P. femolaris, with continuous feeding activity but peak activity occurs in the morning and evening (Megantara, 1989). Gurmaya (1986) reported that the feeding activity of P. Thomasi has three peaks of activity, ie at 08.00, 12.00, and 17.00 with the highest peak in the afternoon. Salter et al. (1985) observed that the peak activity of eating and walking proboscis monkeys in Sarawak occurred at 09.00 am and at 13.00.

Frequency of eating members of the group and the activities that follow the movement of the fluctuation eat, proboscis monkeys showed that feeding activity is not fixed on one tree, and always followed by running events at the branch or from tree to tree. In this case the location of eating proboscis movement occurs between 10-15 minutes. In addition, the number and distribution of fodder trees are equally possible to support the proboscis monkey feeding activity at any time.

Play and berkutuan (each for fleas) occurs when a break in the morning and evening. Play activities performed by adults and adolescents dansetengah between parent and baby, while males mature more rest and sleep. Adult females and young people need better nutrition feed for harbor maintenance and Growth babies, whereas males with weight loss female weight twice more rest.

Proboscis activity in some places show a different pattern, such as proboscis activity in mangroves TN Bako and Wildlife Samunsam in Sarawak (Salter et al., 1985). This activity pattern is presented in Table 29. The results of the observations made in TN Kutai is in the observation interval Salter et al. (1985). The difference in activity may be due to differences in zoning and a dominant mangrove plant species from each habitat, so nothing to do with the quantity and nutritional quality of food resources.

Proboscis monkeys are arboreal activity lasted from forest floor to canopy trees with a height of 30 m. While the height of the trees in the habitat proboscis can reach 43 m (R. apiculata and B. gymnorrhiza). Fluctuations in the main daily activity is eating, walking, and resting in the forest strata are presented in Figure 23. Of the six levels of vegetation in the habitat strata proboscis, the dominant strata for all three main events proboscis is 10-15 m strata, especially for feeding activity (42%) and the rest (37%), whereas the activities were more banyakpada strata 0-5 m (34%) and very little in strata 25-30 m (8%).

The high frequency of utilization of 10-15 m strata is caused by dense mangrove trees between 10-35 cm in diameter (188 trees / ha) and a height of 10-15 m is the bottom and middle canopy. The middle of the canopy with a flat and large branching can support quadrupedal movement. In addition, the center of the canopy provides enough comfort for shaded by a canopy top so there is a difference in temperature 1.5 ° C lower and branching according to weight proboscis.

Differences in habitat use simpatrik strata indicate different ecological niches of each type of primate. It also depends on the type of movement, the productivity of leaves or fruit, the temperature and humidity of each stratum (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1980). The use of strata by the primate is also related to the efficiency of the movement of arboreal primates in search of food, and even if food resources more efficiently dispersed the journey through the forest floor, such as the behavior of M. nemestrina (Rodman, 1978). This strategy also looks at current activity goes a long proboscis into the woods with a relatively short time. Proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest traveling a distance of 400 m from the river bank dalamwaktu 1.25 hours or 320 m per hour. Rapid movement without stopping is rare, but the speed will perger proboscis can reach 450 m per hour (Salter et al., 1985).

6.2. Eating Techniques

Proboscis monkeys belong folivorous primates (leaf eaters) (Rodman, 1978; Yeager, 1989; Bennett and Sebastian, 1989). Group folivorousmendapat essential proteins from the leaves, while the class of frugivorous add protein needs from fruits and seeds (Hladik, 1978). Proboscis monkeys eat leaves, flowers and fruit at the ends of the branches, but the position of the proboscis monkey on a branch in the canopy, grabbing sticks around or sitting on a branch. Position proboscis while foraging technique similar to P. obscura and P. melalophos reported Fleagle (1980). The style and technique of the proboscis monkey as it looks.

The leaves are consumed proboscis is the young leaves in the order of 1 to 3 of the top branches. The feed can be taken directly by mouth or by picking. Leaves eaten one or two pieces in a way to bite up to three times. Every bite is chewed between 10-30 times, fruit A. officinalis eaten one at a time and chew 15-30 times, so that in 5 minutes proboscis converting state consumption 15.6 7.5 leaves or fruit of A. officinalis. Chewing is 10-30 times as much as one strategy to help digestion proboscis physically and stimulates salivation to maintain the pH of the stomach so that the fermentation of feed by stomach bacteria can run optimum (Bismark, 1994). In general, Na + present in the rumen of ruminant derived from the saliva (Durand and Kawashima, 1980), whose role is to maintain a stable pH of the stomach (Bennett, 1983).

6.3. Type and Diversity Feed

Proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat with R. communities apiculata, consisting of R. apiculata, A. officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, and some such limited number B. sexangula and Avicennia marina, the kind that is not class mangroves, such as Ardisia humilis, Ficus binnendykii, Allophyllus cobbe, and Aglaia cuculata. The diversity of mangrove plant species in space odyssey proboscis in TN Kutai was 2.08 (Shannon-Wiener Index). The low diversity of plant species in the habitat caused low diversity proboscis to feed large quantities.

Mangrove plant species are eaten proboscis is R. apiculata, A. officinalis, B. gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, and A. cobbe. Edible parts include leaves, flowers, fruit and bark with a diversity index of 1.748.

From the observation feces, in addition to leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark particles were also found crabs and termites. Proboscis monkeys are also reported to eat the fungus Stereum lobatum (Bismark, 1980), and interest Nipa fruticans (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988).

Research Yeager (1988) says there are 47 species of plants yangdimakan proboscis in peat swamp forest but every month just consumed 10-23 species (average of 14.9 species) with a diversity of 0.86 to 2.21. Salter et al. (1985) stated that the type of feed proboscis at two study sites (TN Bako and Wildlife Samunsam) include mangrove habitat, swamp palm, riverside forests, dipterocarp forests and Heath who have any kind of food no less than 90 species of plants.

From some of the research results are positive correlation between weight primates with leaves in feed composition (Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1977) and primates that consume leaves more likely to achieve a high biomass (Hladik, 1977; Bennett, 1983) (Figure 26 ). Proboscis to feed composition has a 51.94% leaf biomass 499.5 kg / km ² (Yeager, 1989), and that takes a leaf number of 41% of the total biomass feed having 45.8 kg / km ² (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988), while proboscis feed composition comprising 81.14% of the biomass has 792.06 kg / km ².

6.4. Feed Composition and Selection Ratio

In regard to feeding behavior and feeding proboscis, four things that support the study of behavior (Soendjoto et al., 2005). First, proboscis monkeys consuming diets (leaves, flowers, fruits) from various plant species. The diversity of food is an attempt proboscis or other animals in general to maintain balance and nutritional needs. Nutrients that are not derived from plant species or of certain types of feed derived from feed type or species tumbuhanlainnya.

Second, proboscis monkeys are found more often eat shoots or young leaves than old leaves. This is in accordance with the opinion of Bennett and Sebastian (1988) that the proboscis prioritizing young leaves although older leaves abundant. Primates will eat older leaves when young leaves tidaktersedia again. The cause of this is the selection of young leaves more water content. It is known that the water content in the shoots reach 88% and 67% in young leaves. Bismark (1987) reported that the proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest eat the leaves with water content of 68%. Another factor is the level of ease to digest high on young leaves as indicated by low crude fiber contained by buds or young leaves (Table 32). Food that contains easy to digest, high in general have a low fiber content.

Third, after picking feed, proboscis monkeys do not always take all parts of the plant such as leaves plucked rubber sometimes only partially eaten. It is not known for certain reasons proboscis behave that way. In the mangrove forests, proboscis monkeys also eat some of the leaves and discard the rest. This method is an attempt proboscis for energy efficiency in the digestion of feed and to obtain better nutrition (Bismark, 1986).

Fourth, proboscis monkey and likes eating food source that actually has a high tannin levels. It showed a great tolerance to high levels of tannin feed. Leinmuller et al. (1991) reported several publications about the toxic effects of tannins, namely a reduction in appetite and weight loss in sheep and goats and the presence of toxins in the kidneys and liver of animals that have a simple digestive system (monogastric).

Feed proboscis consists of 81.14% leaves, fruits 8.38%, 7.68% interest, 1.05% bark, and 1.75% insects. From the analysis of known composition feces feed the leaves 72.90%, 17.79% fruit, bark 7.05%, 1.13% insects and crabs. Proboscis feed composition observed in the field was not significantly different from the results of the analysis of feces. Plant fragments in the feces of ruminant animals is not different from the proportion of plants eaten (Todd, 1973).

Judging from the chemical content, bark (R. apiculata) are eaten proboscis does not show a very real difference to the leaves and fruit, with the exception of the amount of crude fiber (63.78%) and Ca (0.958%) bark (higher). The concentration of Ca in the bark up to 5 times higher than the leaves. Calcium (Ca) in ruminant feed is useful for digestion of cellulose, for the formation of the bacterial cell wall and for the process of nitrogen fixation by bacteria (Durand and Kawashima, 1980). Highest ratio of feed selection is A. officinalis (Table 34). The high ratio of the selection of A. officinalis because the levels of protein and essential minerals are high and its position near the edge of the river where proboscis monkeys feeding activity often done at a distance of 0-100 m from the edge of the river (73.53%), especially in the morning and afternoon. Salter et al. (1985) also reported that feeding activity proboscis more frequent around the edge of the river. The dominant type of proboscis feed is R. apiculata and A. officinalis respectively 71.9% and 22.7%. In Sarawak, only get a portion Rhizophora and Avicennia 0.8% 7.6% of the time eating proboscis (Salter et al., 1985).

Comparison of protein with fiber and tannins in feed proboscis is 0.35. This ratio is higher than the feed Presbytis (0.15 to 0.25) (Bennett, 1983). This shows that the proboscis tolerant of tannins and low fiber and high-protein feed needed. There was no correlation with the concentration ratio of feed selection tannins and crude fiber, crude fiber and tannins as can be fermented and turned off by the digestive tract microflora (Hladik, 1977; Bauchop, 1978; Bennett, 1983, and Lindroth, 1989). Volume gastrointestinal proboscis wider than other Colobinae digestive tract volume so that the system will be more efficient digestion.

Leaves are the major feed component proboscis (81.14%). Although the fruit is consumed only 8.38% but has the selection ratio 65.57. Proboscis fondness for fruit (A. officinalis) was associated with lower levels of fiber and tannins (11.02%) compared with leaves (average 23.903%). Besides fruit A. officinalis containing Cu (18.8 ppm) is higher than other food sources (Table 41) where Cu role in activating protein synthesis (Durand and Kawashima, 1980). Cu deficiency can cause anemia in ruminants (Church et al., 1971). To provide for the essential amino acids proboscis insects or termites (Coptotermes) and crab.

6.5. Feed the need

By age class, individual adult female proboscis monkey, half-grown, and young with an average weight loss was 8.84 kg of feed consumed by the composition comprises 81.14% of the leaves, fruits 8.38%, 7.68% interest, as well as insects, crabs, and bark some 2.8% of the amount of feed or 900 g wet weight of 270.25 g in beratkering. The time it takes to consume is 3.01 hours per day (Table 40). When compared with the production of young leaves, only 1% of the mangrove forest productivity consumed proboscis. Hladik (1978) reported that leaf-eating primates consume only the leaves in the total forest productivity ranged from 0.5 to 4%.

Based on the observations of the three types of plant feed proboscis monkey in the jungle rubber (Table 38), the amount of feed per day varies between individuals proboscis 919.96 to 1537.59 g wet weight (Soendjoto, 2005). Bismark (1987) reported that edible plants proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest berberkisar 1500-1750 g leaf.

Caloric content of feed consumed proboscis, the average was 3.9475 kcal per gram dry weight. Thus, feed intake proboscis weighing 270.252 g dried (30.57 g dry weight of feed / kg body weight) of 1066.8 kcal calories or 120.68 kcal / kg body weight.

According to research by Iwamoto (1982), Macaca fuscata weighing 8 kg of feed needed an average of 254 g dry weight (31.75 g / kg body weight) with the calories of 1050 kcal (131.25 kcal / kg body weight). Meanwhile, according to research by Hasan (1983), P. melalophos were bred with an average weight 4.6 kg of feed consumed some gberat 28.3 per kg dry weight by 110.7 kcal calories per kg of body weight. Compared with the above results, the need for food and calories per kg of body weight on average proboscis monkey is no different from M. fuscata and P. melalophos.

Mealtimes affect the adequacy of calories, in this case P. melalophos males and females did not differ in time to eat because no sexual dimorphism (Bennett, 1983) is certainly different from N. larvatus where males weighing twice the weight of females. For calorie, proboscis the efficiency, in which the male proboscis monkey is running slower, down to the forest floor, and the activity did not play.

6.6. Mineral Needs

Proboscis feed derived from plants is 98.25%, consisting of leaves, fruits, and flowers. Results ana lysis concentration of minerals and mineral content of total P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, CI, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in the feed consumed proboscis that on average every day.

Type of feed consumed in small quantities exhibit certain advantages in the minerals needed proboscis, as Alophyllus cobbe (0.87% share of the feed) containing P and Zn were higher than the dominant type of leaf fodder. Although the main sources feed the leaves, but the flowers and fruit consumed for additional mineral needs, such as the rate R. fruit and A. apiculata officinalis contains higher Cu than leaves of A. offici nationalists. P content in leaves and fruits A. officinalis higher than Rhizophora and Bruguiera, while the bark of R. apiculata containing Ca higher than other feed sources.

Of the total cumulative (Table 41), including mineral deposits that a major element proboscis feed consumption in one day is P 431.47 mg; Na 2275.65 mg; K 1588.56 mg; 1314.9 mg Ca, and Mg 1053.98 mg, whereas other elements (minor) required in small amounts, namely Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn mas ing each 89.86; 7.965; 2.75, and 1.79 mg per day.

To meet the needs of minerals, types Colobinae eat plants and clay marsh (Oates, 1978), such as the proboscis monkey eating leaves of A. cobbe. Berda sarkan proboscis monkey feces mineral content in the mangroves the absorption or utilization of mineral feed main elements P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, and Cl over 90%, while other elements are (minor), Cl, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn varies from 60-80%. It appears that the mineral needs proboscis is supported by an efficient digestive system proboscis. The efficiency of the digestive system allowing for an digestive duct volume larger proboscis (8371 cm ³) than other types of Colobinae.

CHAPTER 7

BIOMASS AND POWER SUPPORT HABITAT

7.1. Biomass Parameters

The movement of arboreal primates depend on the physical keseimbanganstruktur stratification extensive forest canopy cover, stand height, tree density, and species composition in the habitat. The physical structure of forest stands is needed to support the daily movement behavior, foraging, social activity, and reproductive behavior. Besides the physical structure of the balance stands also define micro-climatic conditions that affect the physiology of animals, feed consumption, digestibility, and energy efficiency (Church et al., 1974). Total feed intake and energy depend on the weight or biomass species (Moen, 1973; Wheatley, 1984).

The amount of biomass arboreal animal population affected by the carrying capacity of the habitat, especially the stand density and diversity of tree canopy stratification feed and structures that affect the movement and energy efficiency in the metabolism of animals. Population density and biomass is strongly influenced by the physical structure and biodiversity of forest stands as habitat quality parameters.

Effect of habitat structure and balance microclimate terhadapefisiensi seen from the comparison of energy consumption energy consumption proboscis monkey in captivity at 119.46 kcal per kg body weight (BW), which is almost equal to the energy needs in the mangroves sebesar120, 68 kcal per kg body weight to support all activities hariannyasecara free (Bismark, 1994).

Energy sufficiency population arboreal animals with feed source leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds such as primates is determined by the productivity of the forest, weight or biomass population of animals that inhabit it. Therefore, the determination of weight arboreal animals can be used to predict the level of carrying capacity, or to assess the quality of the forest as a habitat. Weight measurements performed directly on the nature of the styles denganmenimbang bending tree branches less than 10 cm in diameter with a maximum height of 5 m are used proboscis to sit or stop just before running or jumping. Dahan tied to the gravity dikait proboscis with a rope and spring scales attached to the root of the tree, perpendicular under gravity. Elasticity and limb load can be seen on the scale when the rope is pulled timbanganpegas and flexural limb ditempatibekantan same time.

To find the geometric parameters are closely related to body weight, sitting height measurements or body length and head proboscis. Prediction of body weight indirectly by high parameter sit better and easily observed (Bismark, 1994). Measurement of sitting height (td) in the field is done by measuring the distance of the head to the forest floor or branches where proboscis duduk.Sebelumnya distances two points to be measured observed with binoculars to determine the sign on the tree branches, twigs or leaves that are touching or parallel to the head and the proboscis monkey determining the point in his seat.

7.2. Proboscis monkeys Weight Measurement Model

Proboscis monkeys are primates dimorphism, where there are differences in body shape, nose shape, and size of body morphology that affect weight. Comparison of body shapes and sizes are correlated with body weight according to sex and age class of the proboscis monkey sitting height (body length up to the head). Parts of the body geometry parameter can be a dominant weight proboscis monkey is sitting height and body surface area.

Seat height is more easily observed and measured in the field. Another parameter closely related to body weight is body surface area (body, head, and limbs) where extensive permukaantubuh (L) animals weighing between 0.02 to 1400 kg weight is proportional to the rank ¾ even close ⒠ (Montheith and Unsworth , 1991).

Based on the results of measurements of body surface area proboscis by sex and age class with geometry parameters are easily observed in the field, the seat height (td) made a correlation analysis follows an exponential regression model similarity (Bismark, 1994). The regression analysis of the relationship td (cm) and L (m²) of male and female produce:

L (ˁ) = .0514 e0, 0395td. (R = 0.90)

L (˂) = .1048 e0, 0662td. (R = 0.87)

In accordance with the high ratio of male and female proboscis monkey sitting, then the equation L estimates also differ between males and females, then L is used to estimate the weight td proboscis through indirect measurements. From Table 44 it is known that the body surface area (in m² L) correlated with proboscis weight (BW kg) following equation: L = 0.134 BB0, 67. Prediction of body weight based on the parameters of male and female sitting height (td) and body surface area (L) systematically, as follows:

 1. Measurement of sitting height (td in cm) in the field

 2. Calculation of body surface area (L in m²)

 (1) ......... L ˁ = 0.514 e0, 039 td

(2) ......... L ˂ = .1048 e0, 0662 td

 3. Prediction of body weight (BW)

(3) ............ L = 0.1324 BB0, 67

Based on the analysis of the data in Table 44, the results of measurements of td and BB with a variety of primary data sources regardless of their age class jeniskelamin and then obtained a general equation of correlation td and weight as follows:

(4) ......... BB0 td = 33.03, 25 (r = 0.91)

The results of these estimates are determined with an accuracy pengamatantd in the field. For observations have been observations td proboscis position with upright body position relative to the branch of the tree is less than 10 cm in diameter with a height of 5 m in order to identify and quantify td on the sign in which a sitting or tagging stick around that touches the top of the head proboscis. To measure td observer must climb the tree to sit on posisisatwa primates, proboscis monkey has moved shortly.

7.3. Biomass Estimation

Based on the number and age class composition of the proboscis in one sq km of mangrove forest can be estimated biomass of the proboscis.

Yeager (1988) stated that the biomass of a group of proboscis monkeys in Tanjung Puting ranged from 54.1 to 148.4 kg, while the biomass of the population was 499.5 kg per km ², in which the proboscis with one male adult, with adult males weighing 20.3 kg, 2 kg infant, adolescent 5 kg, half the adult females 9 kg, 12 kg adult male half, and adult females 9.9 kg. In Wildlife Samunsam, Sarawak, proboscis monkey population biomass of 46 kg per km ² (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988).

Biomass is a kind of high Colobinae Presbytis senex in Polonnarua, ie 1450 kg per km ². This type of leaf eating large portions, namely a 400 kg per individual per year (Hladik, 1978). Colobinae kind in Southeast Asia showed no significant differences in the amount and composition of social groups (Bennett, 1983). But the differences among primate species biomass is determined by the feed source (Hladik, 1978). The population of leaf-eating primates (Colobinae) higher than the fruit-eating primates, this is possible due to the high productivity of leaves and available every season.

Biomass primates also affected by the conditions and differences in habitat, such as P. melalophos and P. obscura lowland each with 300 kg of biomass per km ² and 314 kg per km ² (Marsh and Wilson, 1981) in contrast to that in the highlands. Productivity and environmental differences in peat swamp forest habitat along the river with riverinemangrove forest biomass also showed perbe distinction proboscis, which is 499.5 kg per km ² to 792.06 kg per km ², the amount of biomass is greater than the biomass proboscis in other habitats.

7.4. Habitat and Adaptation Capability

The carrying capacity of the habitat indicated proboscis monkey population that can live in habitats within a given area. Carrying capacity is influenced by the type, quality, productivity, habitat, food resources and external factors that affect the quality and productivity of habitats, such as pencemaran.Habitat proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest with tree density (≥ 35 cm diameter) as many as 59 trees / ha, 118 pole / ha, and 508 saplings / ha showed high forest productivity. It is predicted from litter production under the stands. Litter production average 3.32 g dry weight / m² / day equivalent to 13.18 kcal / m² / day. Production of mangrove riparian forest litter in Florida reported by Mitcsh and Gosselink (1989) is 14 kcal / m² / day. With the results of the litter a net primary production of the mangrove forest is 57 kcal / m² / day. Clough et al. (1983) reported that Rhizophora that grow well in Australia produced leaflets a 5 ton / ha / year. One indicator of mangrove forests that are in the condition of high productivity is the result of litter mencapai1 0.3 to 2, 0 g / m² / day (Champman, 1983).

Proboscis individual calorie needs depend on your weight and activity goes. Of the event, 59.92% done with quadrupedal walking, climbing 11.34%, 23.89% jump, and 4.85% move by hanging. Based on the formula Moen (1973) and Wheatley (1982) the caloric needs of the average proboscis monkeys weighing 8.84 kg for arboreal movement activity was 133.76 kcal, covering the needs of 93.55 kcal jumping, quadrupedal movement, climbing and swinging 4.92 kcal, and the vertical movement (gradient 50%), 35.29 kcal. Basal metabolic 358.89 kcal, 14.38 kcal meals, breaks 92.89 kcal and 47.91 kcal play. Arboreal movement activity is not on a flat surface so that the caloric requirements for arboreal movement is doubled (Wheatley, 1982). Thus, the total caloric needs proboscis with an average body weight 8.84 kg is 781.60 kcal. To meet the daily calorie proboscis weighing 8.84 kg consuming 900 g of feed a day.

Caloric content of feed consumed proboscis average is 1066.8 kcal or 120.68 kcal / kg body weight proboscis. Mangrove forest habitat carrying capacity is 84 individuals proboscis / km ² with 778.68 kg biomass and caloric needs 93971.1 kcal per day, while the productivity of habitat is 570,000 kcal / km ², thus the energy consumption of feed required bekantan the optimum population is 16, 5% of the primary productivity of the habitat.

In the mangrove forest habitat with good quality and high productivity, proboscis monkey can live in a relatively dense population. This is evident from the use of core areadaerah cruising relatively small (18-20 ha) with an overlap of 20-62% space odyssey. Yeager (1989) reported that the space odyssey (home range) proboscis in peat swamp forest ranged from 125 to 137.5 ha area overlapping with 95.9%, while the "adjusted home range" of intensive use was 19.3 ha per group . Spacious living proboscis monkey in the mangrove odyssey was 19.4 ha, not unlike the adjusted home raised rangeyang Yeager (1989). To cope with the competition in the placement of trees and tree food source proboscis sleep in moving bed location average of 220 m each day and the distance between groups of 50-400 m.

Use and transfer of trees on the banks of the river bed is an adaptation to disease and predators proboscis. In habitats that have been damaged tree selection strategies and behavior of bed to move every day is a way to maintain the population.

Efficient use of time and travel in foraging activity, clogs pok proboscis forming sub-groups average 8.5 rataterdiri each individual dispersed within an average of 96 m. Forty-three percent of the sub-groups consisting of one adult male individual was 9.12 and 22.8% consisted of 2 males. Formation of sub-groups than to resolve the competition between individuals also play a role in the efficient use of feed resources, monitoring space odyssey, and the efficiency of controlling members of sub-groups that are fewer in number by the adult males.

Proboscis monkey population density in rivers affected by changes in forest vegetation types of the estuary wetlands to mixed dipterocarp forest in the hinterland upstream. Forests in the interior relatively nutrient-poor, while the proboscis monkey as leaf-eating primates (Colobinae subfamilies) requires high mineral.

Proboscis serious habitat degradation have occurred on the island of Borneo Shocked South in 1996. An area of ​​267 ha is occupied proboscis some 228 individuals. Habitat dominated by Sonneratia caseolarisdi riverside 20-55 m thick with a density of 150 trees / ha. Tree density is still support for the tree needs sleep and food for some 200 individuals proboscis with the distribution of sub-groups of between 25-75 m. In terms of feed, with an indication of the level of emaciation proboscis, qualitatively only 25% of the proboscis that can not be adapted to habitat conditions, especially solitary individual and the individual's old age classes.

Adaptation proboscis proboscis looks of how plants utilize water bermineral high, because the forest floor is dominated by the riverside undergrowth, Eichornia crassipes, Lymnocharis flava, Pistia stratiotesyang easily washed and swept away in the river. Plants Agapanthus africanus is dominant, while in the center of the island is dominated by Acrostichum aureum.Tumbuhan Shocked generally covered under my breath root S. caseolaris.Sebanyak 75% of the population can adapt to the proboscis look feed from aquatic plants, namely Lymnocharis flava, Agapanthus africanus, Hymnenachne amplexicanlis and Vittis trifolia. Aquatic plants are eaten primates have a higher mineral content than plants feed on the dry plains primates (Oates, 1978).

To maintain the population, proboscis monkeys need enough minerals (Bennett and Sebastian, 1988) such as K, it takes a number of 197.9 mg / kg / day (Bismark, 1995) while Vittis trifoliadiketahui containing K 1.06%. The high mineral plants on the island is indicated by the results of the chemical analysis of breath Soneratia caseolaris roots.

But the roots of breath S. caseolaris, minerals detected were Zn, Cu, and Al, the concentration of the womb mineraltanah 2-8 times, while the Al content of 6-17 times that of the concentration of Al ground, Cd and Pb was not detected. Cd was not detected in the roots of S. breath caseolarisdapat due to high concentrations of Zn, where a high concentration of Zn can reduce the absorption of Cd.

Proboscis monkeys living in Kuala Samboja riparian forest, East Kalimantan near the settlement can consume Mangifera caesia, Garcinia mangostana, Durio zibethinus, Sandoricum koetjape, and Hevea brasiliensis, however, still take Sonneratia caseolarissebagai mineral resources (Alikodra et al., 1995). Adaptation of the proboscis monkey habitat and food resources visible from the population density and the number of group average 14.9 individuals / groups (Alikodra et al., 1995) and in the headwaters dominated Dipterocarpaceae average of 12 individual / group, while in the woods mangrove 17.4 and 21 individuals / groups.

This indicates differences in habitat carrying capacity, especially in the provision of feed and mineral resources. In the forest of rubber, can be adapted proboscis well characterized by the number of members of the group were more than 19 individuals. High levels of protein and important minerals in feed availability and the availability of water bekantan a major supporter of the existence and adaptation proboscis outside the peat swamp forest or mangrove forest (Soendjoto et al., 2006).

CHAPTER 8

CONSERVATION

8.1. Habitat degradation and population decline

The South East Asian Zoo Association (SEAZA) and the Association of Zoos whole Indonesai (PKBSI) has identified that the proboscis occupies high priority in conservation in situ or eksitu. For it has been held in Bogor international workshopkonservasi organized by the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group of the IUCN-the World Conservation Union (CBSG) and workshops in Indonesia Proboscis Monkey Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) December 2004 (Proboscis Monkey PHVA, 2004) .

The high level of conservation priority due to concerns about the proboscis monkey populations decline in the wild quickly. The population of proboscis monkeys in Borneo approximately 25,000 individuals, and the results of the identification of the 12 locations spread proboscis, the population is estimated at 9200 individuals (PHVA Prosboscis monkey, 2004) and Supriatna (2004) predicts population 15,000 individuals living with habitat lajudeforestasi 2.49%. In 1994 the total population of proboscis monkeys in Indonesia some 114 000 individuals with one example in TN Kutai totaling 400 individuals (Bismark and Iskandar, 2002).

In conservation areas scattered groups of proboscis between 4-25 km (1986), an average of 30 miles in 1994, and the distance distribution outside the conservation area will grow in line with the fragmentation of the forest along the river habitat proboscis, peat swamp forests and dissolution corridor which connects lakes forested habitat berpotensisebagai proboscis, such as the distribution of sub-populations bekantandi Mahakam Delta which is an average of 50 km (Ma'ruf, 2005).

Fragmentation of habitat by the river will cut off migration routes in case sewaktuwaktu proboscis monkey population capacity of the habitat. Similarly, the lack of food in a particular season and kebutuhanmineral high as feed components directly proboscis which can result in a decrease in population. Within a year the proboscis using forest area 9 km ². Habitat fragmentation may increase the threat of poaching, parasites, predators, and high pressure affecting the proboscis monkey population decline.

Effect of habitat fragmentation on the population, especially in the forest proboscis riverinemangrove, because of potential mangrove vegetation as habitat for proboscis monkey is only 7%. Additionally peat swamp forest habitat has been degraded through the use of production forests, agricultural land development, plantation and settlement. The threat of population decline due to the reduction proboscis monkey proboscis monkey habitat was 3.1% per year (Bismark and Iskandar, 1997) while habitat degradation 3.49% per annum (Supriatna, 2004). When viewed from the population in 1994 with a population of 114,000 individuals and 15,000 individuals in tahun2004, population declines in the last 10 years an average of 10% per year. This shows that the proboscis monkeys are sensitive to habitat fragmentation.

Given the daily activities proboscis using 500 m wide riparian forest and daily movement proboscis between 300-800 m in rubber, 800-2000 m in the mangrove forest, then the proboscis monkey habitat conservation efforts need to be done perlindunganatau river riparian forest established as a protected area is an area at least 500 m. Protection 500 m wide river border is in addition to providing habitat with minimal carrying capacity to the proboscis monkey, has an impact on the reduction of the flow rate of surface soil erosion carrying particles that can degrade the quality of the river. Accelerating depletion results mineralization of litter that can cause eutropikasisungai, including the preservation of species diversity of aquatic fauna. In production forests bordering the proboscis monkey habitat harvesting techniques need to be applied to the Reduced Impact Logging (RIL) to maintain water quality. It is very conducive to the preservation of habitat for proboscis monkeys, because the proboscis in dire need of good quality water that can be mempengaruhikualitas feed, tree beds, drinking water, and as a means for swimming and bathing activities.

Observations Yeager (1992) in TN Tanjung Puting in 1985 showed proboscis monkey population density of 62.9 people per square km, and 41 individuals per square kilometer in 1991. Dalamwaktu six years there has been a population decline of 35% or approximately 6% per year. This is caused by the pollution of river water due to gold mining in the headwaters, the river habitat degradation, and increased boat traffic. Given the proboscis is very sensitive to habitat destruction (Bennett and Gombek, 1991), the proboscis monkey populations can be used as an indicator for swamp forest destruction. Populasibekantan habitat conditions that severely damaged an average of nine people per square km (Yeager and Blondan, 1992).

Water pollution by heavy metals indicated accumulation Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, and Mo in the root tissues R. apiculatadalam proboscis monkey in the mangrove forest habitat (Bismark, 1995). Merangasnya Sonneratia caeolarisakibat heavy metals Shocked Island South Kalimantan, causing a potential drop feed proboscis. Riverside forests and wetlands associated with coastal tidal river or sea is polluted, then the dissolved pollutants that can affect the quality of the food source, and can affect the diversity of species and populations of endangered species.

Habitat destruction caused predators proboscis perform movements with ease. Varanus lizard populations salvatorsebagai one predator primates (Rodman, 1998; Yeager, 1992) pretty much contained in the swamp and mangrove areas. Besides lizards, reptile as a predator allowing proboscis in mangroves is a cobra (Ophiophagus hannah). The problem is not just a problem proboscis monkey habitat reduction swamp forest area, but also the issue of quality of river water into drinking water, bathing, and swimming to the proboscis. Ongoing settlement construction and upstream industries, can degrade the quality of rivers, such as the pollution of the parasite can spread through water. Evidence of this has been known from the discovery of faecal worm egg Ascrisdan Trichiurisdalam proboscis. Trichiuris commonly found in the feces of primates such as Macaca fascicularis (Matsubayashi, 1981), the orangutan and chimpanzee (Rijksen, 1987).

8.2. Conservation Eksitu

Maintenance of proboscis monkeys in the zoo and the public have long done inside and outside the country, and the first successful breeding of proboscis monkeys reported in 1993. Of the various public statements, proboscis monkeys are captured from the wild is very difficult to maintain because it has high levels of stress and sulitmakan, consequently it is not uncommon to die within a short time. Breeding experiments proboscis in East Kalimantan has been done in the area of ​​plant species PT Pupuk Kaltim Bontang (1993) and Taman Safari Indonesia (TSI). Proboscis monkeys are ditangkar in PT Pupuk Kaltim Bontang fed with instant noodles, fruit trees Simpur (Dillenia sp.), Banana, papaya, and drinking water.

The average dry weight of feed per day proboscis is 157.93 g or 27.85 g / kg body weight by calorie feed 119.46 kcal / kg body weight. At the Singapore Zoo Zoological Garden (SZG) proboscis monkeys fed with apples (25 g), banana (25 g), green beans (3 tissue), boiled eggs (½), and rice with meat (25 g) in the form of a ball. Furthermore fed with pellets (Zupreem primate dry) with fish oil and neotroplek (3-4 pellets) and leaves (3 belt or 4 kg) to feed the needs of the individual 5 proboscis. Reported since the beginning of 1998 are maintained at SZG proboscis from Yogyakarta Zoo healthy lifestyle with diet above and can bear children.

In Taman Safari Indonesia (TSI), Bogor proboscis monkeys fed vegetable 37.42%, 3.98% protein, 49.71% leaves, and fruit with a ratio of 8.89% Ca / P ratio of 1.31. Proboscis monkeys weighing 6 kg 1.8 kg meal or 30.18% of the weight by calorie content of 925.5 kcal (Trihastuti et al., 2004), the caloric needs of the female proboscis monkey feed weighing 8.8 kg was 745, 41 kcal and males weighing 5 kg requires 647.8 kcal calories (Bismark, 1994). Bekantan feed components in TSI, Bogor.

Types of leaves given to proboscis in TSI is cinnamon leaf, fig, angsana, Jingjing, ketapang, jackfruit, and fig jelateh. These species have a high Ca levels between 6-30%, where the fig leaf Ca jelateh 30.5 ppm, levels of P from 0.1 to 2.3%, and protein content from 11.3 to 22.8%. Feed composition, nutrient levels, and proper feeding techniques will support the acceleration of breeding or conservation programs eksitubekantan, as indicated by the growing population of proboscis through child birth in captivity.

Eksitubekantan conservation through the development of captive breeding in zoos or other conservation organizations can be used as a means of conservation education and leisure that brings cultural values ​​regarding the preservation of proboscis monkeys in nature, especially in terms of prevention of poaching or habitat rehabilitation efforts by the river, lakes, and forests with plants that can a source of feed proboscis.

8.3. Conservation Program

Based on the results of the 2004 PHVA proboscis, habitat destruction has been identified problem and its impact on the sustainability of the proboscis monkey as shown. Utilization and conversion of forest land proboscis monkey habitat in the peat swamp forests, freshwater swamps or mangroves into plantations, fisheries or mining ponds in the upstream river water quality berdampakpada proboscis monkey habitat is already running long. Among these are changes in water quality proboscis monkey habitat in Tanjung Puting TN due to gold mining in the headwaters. The degradation of the river reinforced by high river transport activity (speed boat) which can increase abrasion by the river, reducing the diversity of plant species under the edge of the river as a potential sumberpakan proboscis.

River pollution by heavy metals indicated by increased concentrations of heavy metals in the roots of mangrove plants are a source of food proboscis, such as Zn and Cu content in roots Soneratia caseolarisdengan concentration of 2-8 times of the existing content in the soil and 6-17 times for mineral al. The content of 20-120 ppm Pb and Mo ppm 1,04-1-21 found on mangrove roots in TN Kutai (Bismark, 1994), whereas in the unspoiled mangrove forests have undetectable levels of Mo (Bismark, 2007).

The expansion of farms that reach more than 50% within 10 years (Sarjono, 1997) and the proboscis monkey habitat tersisanya area of ​​10% in the Mahakam estuary (Ma'ruf et al., 2005) and the breaking of proboscis monkey habitat and distribution averaged over 30 km is the fact that it can be used as the basis for why the preservation of the proboscis is a top priority, including the impact of forest fires caused by various public interventions into the peat and forest by the river illegally.

To overcome the problem of habitat and population decline proboscis programs need to be made following activities:

1. Inventory distribution, habitat, and the proboscis monkey populations.

2. Rehabilitation and restoration of habitat potential for the development of proboscis monkey populations.

3. The development level of public participation in the conservation of river border

   and wildlife.

4. Settings using the river as a means of transportation, waste prevention of entry into

    river, and building development in riparian river habitat proboscis.

5. Eksitu conservation development.

6. Development of natural tourism object proboscis in an effort to increase the economic value

     local communities and wildlife benefits.

7. Enhancing the role of institutional and cultivation of forest management efforts related

   the utilization of non-timber forest products and environmental services.

8.3.1. Inventory Distribution of Population

Increased land use along the river habitat and increasing river transport bekanta has been shown to decrease the population and habitat fragmentation proboscis. Therefore, the population distribution of the data is necessary to determine the conservation status and priorities rescue program. It is more important for the preservation of the proboscis outside the conservation area. Inventariasi is also associated with a program of rehabilitation, restoration, and use of the area and population as the tourist attractions in the nature.

Currently, research is generally focused on the determination of the distribution of danpopulasi, while behavioral research that supports the preservation of habitat is still limited because of the type of habitat and nature proboscis semiterestrial complicate the process of habituation. Therefore, the results presented in this book and behavioral research proboscis monkey habitat utilization in the last 10 years. The results of recent research conducted Soendjoto (2005) is a research proboscis monkey in the jungle rubber. The review addressed the aspects of adaptation proboscis to rubber plantations. The results also indicate that the inventory proboscis monkey is found in a limestone hill forest, South Kalimantan.

8.3.2. Habitat Rehabilitation and Restoration

Riverside forest is the area of ​​the first and more easily used by the local community in the development of agriculture pemukimanatau, including the construction site for the management of non-timber forest products, timber industry, and the industry so that the habitat of proboscis angkutansungai highly susceptible to fragmentation and

formation of critical lands.

Appropriate population distribution inventory, the program needs to be continued for rehabilitation or restoration habitatbekantan potential for coaching populations. Rehabilitation or restoration programs on habitat quality has declined diarahkanpada enrichment plant species feed containing minerals and high in protein. Development of habitat for population increase is directed to sub-population groups in the region could reach the minimum population (250 people). If the area is part of the agricultural frontier, rehabilitation can be done by planting fruit that can support the availability of food sources such as proboscis monkeys reported Alikodra et al. (1995), or with rubber (Soendjoto et al., 2005). The leaves and fruit of the plant species that can be consumed by a proboscis like SZG Singapore.

8.3.3. Breeding

Eksitubekantan conservation efforts have shown results with a growing number of individuals in the form penangkarandi proboscis monkey zoo and TSI. This success is also supported by efforts to develop the type and quality of feed proboscis that meet nutritional and caloric needs. Success is indicated by the success of the proboscis monkey born in captivity tersebut.Penangkaran is one of the conservation efforts that can increase knowledge and public awareness of wildlife conservation.

The proboscis monkey is in the area of ​​captive zoo or TSI is used as a source or a model in conservation education. It can enhance the value of conservation and wildlife habitat conservation cadres as a step in performing insitumelalui conservation awareness to the protection of forest, river border, and prevention of poaching. In addition, it can also be applied to change the perception of people who have considered agricultural pests bekantansebagai become a tourist attraction.

8.3.4. Riverside Forest Utilization Settings

Riverside forests (habitat for proboscis monkeys), the river and the water quality is crucial in preserving the population of proboscis monkeys. Forest river border at least 500 m wide with a diversity of tree species and plant height for trees sleeping and feeding proboscis preserved as habitat critical. In areas with low species diversity as a plantation crop and fruit dikelolamasyarakat, daily movement proboscis increased to 800-1000 m.

Therefore, the use for other purposes such as gardens and settlements should be at least 500 m from the river bank. This meant that the level of disruption to the agricultural proboscis will be low, because the proboscis is very tied to the water source. Adaptation proboscis to crops growing population seen in the rubber forests. However, water resources and riparian forest springs and small streams remains an important part of feeding behavior and daily behavior bekantan.Mengingat that the increased traffic on the river habitat to reduce the population of proboscis monkeys proboscis would require rules or signs in rivers inhabited by proboscis. It is necessary for the driver to speed boatmengurangi speed in order to avoid high noise can cause stress on the proboscis, especially in small streams.

8.3.5. Agro Development

Restoration or rehabilitation program riverside proboscis monkey habitat in line with the development of the river with the object type proboscis. Rehabilitation of river border can be combined with fruit trees agroforestrysehingga pattern can be part agrowisata.Pakan proboscis development program that composition is more than 80% of the leaves can be said that the threat to the fruit proboscis is relatively low, so the model agroforestrymerupakan combination with increasing aspect of conservation of proboscis monkeys incomes, rehabilitasilahan, and improving the quality of the river. Expected development wisataalam in habitat outside conservation proboscis was soon realized and improved in order to reduce the fragmentation of habitats and populations outside protected areas.

Proboscis role in maintaining biodiversity habitat vegetation. In this case the proboscis monkeys also eat seeds of plants are dominant. This method will provide an opportunity for non-dominant species to thrive, thereby proboscis monkey populations large enough role in the improvement of biodiversity of forest vegetation (Yeager and Blondal, 1992).

Preservation proboscis outside the conservation area large role to guard lest the decline is at a critical threshold. Most of the proboscis monkey habitat is outside the conservation area, therefore proboscis monkey habitat in production forests really need to be fostered. Although the hunt for rare proboscis monkeys, but habitat destruction due to development proboscis residential areas and agricultural and fishery (fishery) more negative impact on population decline. Proboscis monkey populations for conservation, habitat protection needs to be made by the river where proboscis monkeys are found at least as far as 500 m, corresponding to the distance from the edge of the river proboscis in daily activities. The river banks are inhabited proboscis in production forests should be included as an indicator of conservation areas of sustainable production forest management can be managed as forest tour.

In Brunei, the preservation of proboscis monkey populations developed concurrently with the development of eco-tourism, so the damage to wildlife habitat through increased recreational activities (Yeager and Blondal, 1992). In TN Kutai, most of the foreign tourists who visit trying to find a group of proboscis monkeys in addition to see orangutans in the Gulf of Kaba. Ecotourism development in conservation areas, national parks, and outside conservation areas, in addition to providing support for habitat conservation and populasijuga provide a positive economic impact for the community, especially outside the conservation area. In protected areas like national parks itself and wildlife habitat and populations in which the proboscis conserved, necessary supervision and guidance of intensive habitat and populations given the rampant illegal logging. This activity can be done starting from the forests in the river border.

Endangered species management activities outside and inside the conservation area is still the main tasks the Ministry of Forestry (MoF), while the presence of wildlife habitat and not always exist in the supervision and responsibility of ministry, such as buffer zones of national parks are managed by the Local Government (Ministry of Affairs). In the buffer zone there is still a potential habitat for rare wildlife, including the proboscis monkey. With the high rate of fragmentation, habitat proboscis had been unconscious in the rural areas where the habitat is very meaningful to pegembangan farms and gardens to support the economic needs of the people.

Proboscis monkey habitat also exists in production forest habitat in which security is the responsibility of license holders Timber Forest Product Utilization (IUPHHK). Although existing environmental management and regulatory guidance to establish conservation areas and areas of forest genetic resources in the production, but the presence of the proboscis monkey habitat specific cause determination and habitat protection in the above categories have not been fully implemented.

Coordination of watershed management programs, protected areas of peat, mangrove forests, villages and plantations integrated and synergistic in preserving the habitat and populations of proboscis is needed, especially in the outer region is necessary konservasi.Untuk institutional establishment as Agency PengarahKonservasi Bappeda coordinated by the members of relevant agencies such as the Department of Forestry, Agriculture, Local Government, Irrigation (PU), and others whose activities have an impact on habitat improvement and preservation of the proboscis.

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